In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank talks about how we learn by observation... and how that can mean beating up an inanimate clown named Bobo.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: The Bobo Doll Experiment 00:00
Social Cognitive Learning 1:05
Limitations of Classical & Operant Conditioning 1:58
Learning Associations 2:38
Learning & Cognition 4:06
Latent Learning 4:58
Observational Learning, Modeling, & Imitation 5:36
Reward Pathways & Mirror Neurons 6:59
Observational Social Learning 7:58
Review & Credits 8:48
--

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Today, Craig is going to dive into the controversy of monetary and fiscal policy. Monetary and fiscal policy are ways the government, and most notably the Federal Reserve, influences the economy - for better or for worse. So we’re going to start by looking at monetary policy, and specifically how the Federal Reserve uses interests rates as a means of controlling (or at least attempting to control) inflation. We’ll then move onto fiscal policy - that is the government’s use of taxation to raise and spend money. It’s all, well, pretty controversial, but as it seems Americans hate taxes the most, monetary policy is most often used - meaning that the Federal Reserve plays a hugely significant role in steering the U.S. economy.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Take the 2017 PBS Digital Studios Survey: http://surveymonkey.com/r/pbsds2017. Today we’re going to create memory! Using the basic logic gates we discussed in episode 3 we can build a circuit that stores a single bit of information, and then through some clever scaling (and of course many new levels of abstraction) we’ll show you how we can construct the modern random-access memory, or RAM, found in our computers today. RAM is the working memory of a computer. It holds the information that is being executed by the computer and as such is a crucial component for a computer to operate. Next week we’ll use this RAM, and the ALU we made last episode, to help us construct our CPU - the heart of a computer.

*CORRECTION*

In our 16x16 Latch Matrix graphic, we inadvertently left off the horizontal row access line above the top row of latches. As a result, the highlighted line for the row at address 12 should actually be one line higher.


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Want to know more about Carrie Anne?
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So, it turns out we have an easy time reading emotions in facial expressions, but emotions can straight up kill us! In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank discusses stress, emotions, and their overall impact on our health.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!
--
Chapters:
Introduction: How Emotions Work 00:00
Facial Expressions 1:24
Expressing Emotions 2:18
How Many Emotions Are There? 2:57
Two-Dimensional Model of Emotional Experience 3:29
Defining Stress 4:52
Chronic Stress & the Autonomic Nervous System 6:36
Stress & Heart Disease 7:43
Pessimism & Depression 8:30
Review & Credits 9:30
--
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We make small choices like what to eat for lunch, but we also have to set goals, pick a career, and decide how to invest our hard-earned money. It’s not easy! We don’t want to make a decision out of fear, rather than doing what’s best for us. And we don’t want to regret a big choice and dwell on the “what ifs” either.

So today, we’re going to take a step back, understand how to really look at the decisions we’re making, and learn what not to do when facing a difficult choice.

***

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Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Jonathan Zbikowski, Siobhan Sabino, Zach Van Stanley, Bob Doye, Jennifer Killen, Naman Goel, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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Today we’re going to talk about urban planning — which is the design and regulation of space within urban areas. Urban planning helps weave together economic, social, and environmental goals within a region from work, to play, and living, and unsurprisingly, has a tremendous influence on people’s lives! So today, we’re going to discuss some models we’ve used to describe existing cities such as the Latin American Model, take a look at a planned city and the capital of Brazil, Brasília, and look at the impacts of the US highway system and redlining on minority Americans starting in the 1960s.

#CrashCourse #Geography #UrbanGeography

SOURCES

Planning History
https://www.nationalgeographic.....org/article/chicago
Latin America/Brazil
https://worldgeo.pressbooks.co....m/chapter/middle-and
https://www.researchgate.net/f....igure/Latin-American
https://www.researchgate.net/f....igure/Model-of-Latin
https://www.academia.edu/18612....4/Aztec_City_Plannin
https://www.smartcitiesdive.co....m/ex/sustainableciti
https://www.degruyter.com/docu....ment/doi/10.1515/opa
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445/lother=es
http://lanic.utexas.edu/projec....t/etext/llilas/vrp/h
https://www.britannica.com/place/Brasilia
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20632277
https://www.sciencedaily.com/r....eleases/2017/09/1709
https://www.degruyter.com/docu....ment/doi/10.1515/opa
https://www.academia.edu/18612....4/Aztec_City_Plannin
http://www.public.asu.edu/~mes....mith9/1-CompleteSet/
Urban Renewal/Redlining
Sharma, Madhuri (2018) "Community Perspectives on Neighborhood Characteristics and Home-Buying Decisions," International Journal of Geospatial and Environmental Research: Vol. 5 : No. 1 , Article 3.  Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ijger/vol5/iss1/3 
https://www.cleveland.com/arch....itecture/2017/05/des
https://www.ideastream.org/new....s/redlining-racism-s
https://www.clevescene.com/cle....veland/what-the-hist
https://www.archives.gov/resea....rch/african-american
https://www.nps.gov/CRMJournal..../Winter2006/view1.pd
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_renewal
General Sources
For a free and open source option for Intro to Human Geography, see: https://humangeography.pressbooks.com/
For a free and open source option for World Regional Geography, see: https://worldgeography.pressbo....oks.com/front-matter
Cracking the AP Human Geography Exam: 2020 edition.  The Princeton Review.
Hobbs, Joseph J. Fundamental of World Regional Geography, 4th ed. Cengage. 2017.
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Today we're going to take a look at mineral extraction -- or the removal of rocks and minerals from the Earths' crust -- and examine how this human activity impacts all aspects of Geography. We'll focus on the Democratic Republic of the Congo and take a look at how the mining of minerals such as cobalt, has significantly impacted life in this region.

Sources
https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1YdZ--u297RHCKL

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#CrashCourse #Geography #Mining

Chemistry raised to the power of AWESOME! That's what Hank is talking about today with Electrochemistry. Contained within, Hank discusses electrochemical reactions, half-reactions, how batteries work, galvanic cells, voltage, standard reduction potential, cell potential, electrolysis, electroplating, and the things that go into making it possible for you to watch this episode of Crash Course Chemistry!

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

--
Table of Contents

Electro-Chemical Reactions 0:13
Half Reactions 1:42
How Batteries Work 1:47
Galvanic Cells 3:18
Calculating Voltage 4:12
Standard Reduction Potential 4:42
Standard Cell Potential 6:03
Electrolysis 7:24
Electroplating 7:02
--

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So last week we talked about what special interest groups are and how they influence the political system, and today we’re going to focus on why we even have them in the first place. As to avoid getting too cynical, we’re going to focus on five benefits of special interest groups and look at how these factor weigh in a group’s formation and size. We’ll also talk about lobbyists, recent congressional action to limit their influence, and finish with a discussion of both insider and outsider strategies that interest groups use to influence policy.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

All attributed images are licensed under Creative Commons by Attribution 4.0
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Ever wonder why we aren’t exact clones of our parents, or why siblings aren’t exactly alike? The reason traces back to meiosis. In this episode of Crash Course Biology, we’ll discover how egg and sperm cells get made and learn why you’re a totally unique remix of your parents’ DNA.

Introduction: Why Are We All Unique? 0:00
Gametes 1:33
Meiosis 4:09
The Phases of Meiosis 4:44
Nondisjunction 7:14
Why We Aren't Clones 8:18
Meiosis & Genetic Diversity 9:49
Review & Credits 11:32

This series was produced in collaboration with HHMI BioInteractive, committed to empowering educators and inspiring students with engaging, accessible, and quality classroom resources. Visit https://BioInteractive.org/CrashCourse for more information.

Check out our Biology playlist here: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PL8dPuuaLjXt

Watch this series in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel here: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PLkcbA0DkuFj

Sources: https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1GLDtAXE6ekg4Ch

***
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Today, Craig is going to give you an overview of civil rights and civil liberties. Often these terms are used interchangeably, but they are actually very different. Our civil liberties, contained in the Bill of Rights, once only protected us from the federal government, but slowly these liberties have been incorporated to protect us from the states. We’ll take a look at how this has happened and the supreme court cases that got us here.

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All attributed images are licensed under Creative Commons by Attribution 2.0

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Today Craig finishes up our series on U.S. Government and Politics by talking about both the least and most important aspect of government: foreign policy. Foreign policy is important because it has the potential to affect the largest number of people, but at the same time, it tends to play a minimal role in our perception of the government (unless we’re at war). Foreign policy addresses diplomacy, security, human rights, economics, and the environment at a global scale, and we’re going to talk about how our government has approached each of these policies in the past and which it tends to hold most important. As with all things political, the decisions made in fulfilling these policies can be pretty controversial, especially when considering that the President often has the last word in these issues.

We hope this series has helped you better understand the way the U.S. government works and hopefully encouraged you to participate in the political process - here or wherever you may live. Thank you so much for watching!

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Would you like to play a game, Dr. Falken? Actually, this episode isn't really about games, or Matthew Broderick, or Thermonuclear War. But enough with the long references to 1983's best movie, War Games. Today Jacob and Adriene are going to teach you about Oligopolies, which are kind of like the monopolies that we talked about last week, except with more companies involved. Then we'll get to the games, or rather, the game theory. Which is all about how companies try to compete with each other in the real world.

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks

--

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Hank does his best to convince us that chemistry is not torture, but is instead the amazing and beautiful science of stuff. Chemistry can tell us how three tiny particles - the proton, neutron, and electron - come together in trillions of combinations to form ... everything. In this inaugural episode of Crash Course Chemistry, we start out with one of the biggest ideas in chemistry ever - stuff is made from atoms. More specifically, we learn about the properties of the nucleus and why they are important to defining what an atom actually is.

This video is available in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel! Watch it here: https://youtu.be/G7wUMpsB5k8

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Table of Contents
Intro 00:00
Einstein & Atoms 02:05
Composition of Atoms 03:18
Atomic Number 04:20
Isotopes 08:04
Relative Atomic Mass 07:26
Mass Number 07:44

Watch the SciShow episodes on the Strong Nuclear Force here:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yv3EMq2Dgq8
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BNDOSMqGLlg

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Our final episodes of Anatomy & Physiology explore the way your body keeps all that complex, intricate stuff alive and healthy -- your immune system. The immune system’s responses begin with physical barriers like skin and mucous membranes, and when they’re not enough, there are phagocytes -- the neutrophils and macrophages. It also features the awesomely named natural killer cells and the inflammatory response, and we'll explain how all of these elements work together to save the day if you happen to slip on a banana peel.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

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Chapters:
Introduction: Immune System 00:00
Skin as a Physical Barrier 1:47
Mucous Membranes 2:25
Phagocytes: Neutrophils and Macrophages 3:17
Natural Killer Cells 4:29
Inflammatory Response 5:16
Review 8:03

***

"Reformat" Kevin MacLeod (incompetech.com)
Licensed under Creative Commons: By Attribution 3.0 License
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

***

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--

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This week on Crash Course Economics, we're talking about monetary policy. The reality of the world is that the United States (and most of the world's economies) are, to varying degrees, Keynesian. When things go wrong, economically, the central bank of the country intervenes to try aand get things back on track. In the United States, the Federal Reserve is the organization that steps in to use monetary policy to steer the economy. When the Fed, as it's called, does step in, there are a few different tacks it can take. The Fed can change interest rates, or it can change the money supply. This is pretty interesting stuff, and it's what we're getting into today.

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The early 1900s was an amazing time for Western science, as Albert Einstein was developing his theories of relativity and psychology was born, as Sigmund Freud and psychoanalysis took over the scientific mainstream. Karl Popper observed these developments firsthand and came to draw a distinction between what he referred to as science and pseudoscience, which might best be summarized as science disconfirms, while pseudoscience confirms. While the way we describe these disciplines has changed in the intervening years, Popper’s ideas speak to the heart of how we arrive at knowledge.
--

Wanted: Santa Clause by Kevin Dooley https://www.flickr.com/photos/....pagedooley/312444309 licensed under CC BY 2.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0/
Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer copyright Rankin/Bass Productions & DreamWorks Classics
Other images and video via VideoBlocks or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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Hank takes you on a tour of your two-part autonomic nervous system. This episode explains how your sympathetic nervous system and parasympathetic nervous system work together as foils, balancing each other out. Their key anatomical differences - where nerve fibers originate and where their ganglia are located - drive their distinct anatomical functions, making your sympathetic nervous system the "fight or flight" while your parasympathetic nervous system is for "resting and digesting."

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Chapters:
Introduction: Autonomic Nervous System 00:00
Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 1:35
Origins - Comparing the Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 3:23
Ganglia - Comparing the Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 4:11
Axon Lengths - Comparing the Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 5:30
Review 7:35
Credits 8:28

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Simun Niclasen, Brad Wardell, Roger C. Rocha, Jan Schmid, Elliot Beter, Nevin Spoljaric, Sandra Aft, SR Foxley, Jessica Simmons, Stefan R. Finnerup, Jason A Saslow, Robert Kunz, Jessica Wode, Mike Drew, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Christian Ludvigsen, Jeffrey Thompson, James Craver, Caitlin Steinert, BryanGriffith.com, Maia McGuire, That one guy from Midland who teaches science at highschool, Michael Longwell, Justice H, Martha (splicegrrl), Casey Rule, Manuel Kovats, and @simplscientist

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This week we explore the final ethical theory in this unit: Aristotle’s virtue theory. Hank explains the Golden Mean, and how it exists as the midpoint between vices of excess and deficiency. We’ll also discuss moral exemplars, and introduce the concept of “eudaimonia.”

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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Your heart gets a lot of attention from poets, songwriters, and storytellers, but today Hank's gonna tell you how it really works. The heart’s ventricles, atria, and valves create a pump that maintains both high and low pressure to circulate blood from the heart to the body through your arteries and bring it back to the heart through your veins. You'll also learn what your blood pressure measurements mean when we talk about systolic and diastolic blood pressure.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: The Heart 00:00
Structure of the Heart 1:41
The Heart's Ventricles, Atria, and Valves 3:25
Arteries & Veins 4:35
Pulmonary Circulation Loop 5:04
Systemic Loop 6:14
Systolic and Diastolic Blood Pressure 7:58
Review 8:59
Credits 9:29

***

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Anna-Ester Volozh, Robert Kunz, Jason A Saslow, Christian Ludvigsen, Chris Peters, Brad Wardell, Beatrice Jin, Roger C. Rocha, Eric Knight, Jessica Simmons, Jeffrey Thompson, Elliot Beter, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Ian Dundore, Jessica Wode, SR Foxley, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, Steve Marshall

***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: My Student
FROM: Earle

Check out www.youtube.com/amorsciendi for supplementary content.

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TO: Everyone
FROM: Magnus Krokstad

Keep dreaming!

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

Damian Shaw, Taylor Garget, Emily Barker, Librarifan, Damian Shaw, Courtney Spurgeon, juliagraph, Katherine Allen, Stephen DeCubellis, Vanessa Benavent

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Want to find Crash Course elsewhere on the internet?
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