Do you really know how big the universe is? There’s a data driven way to read the news: go to https://ground.news/veritasium to get 30% off the Vantage plan and see through sensationalized reporting.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV


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A huge thank you to Dr. Ashmeet Singh for his expert feedback on this video.


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References:
Fun video by RealLifeLore about the scale of the Universe - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iy7NzjCmUf0&pp=ygUkcmVhbCBsaWZlIGxvcmUgc2NhbGUgb2YgdGhlIHVuaXZlcnNl
Moon Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/NASAMoon
Titan Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/Titan
Mercury Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/Mercury
Why Pluto is no Longer a Planet, BBC News via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIk29MnzZWA&pp=ygUYcGx1dG8gbm8gbG9uZ2VyIGEgcGxhbmV0
Pluto, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiPluto
Eris, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiEris
Brown, M. E., & Schaller, E. L. (2007). The mass of dwarf planet Eris. Science, 316(5831), 1585-1585. - https://ve42.co/Brown2007
Trans-Neptunian object, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiTNO
IAU 2006 General Assembly Press Release, via IAU - https://ve42.co/IAU2006
Solar System Moons via NASA - https://ve42.co/NASAMoons
Solar System Asteroids via NASA - https://ve42.co/Asteroids
Solar System, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiSolarSystem
How many stars are in the Universe via ESA - https://ve42.co/ESAStars
Catalog of Exoplanets via exoplanet - https://ve42.co/ExoplanetCatalog
Crowther, T. W., Glick, H. B., Covey, K. R., Bettigole, C., Maynard, D. S., Thomas, S. M., ... & Bradford, M. A. (2015). Mapping tree density at a global scale. Nature, 525(7568), 201-205. - https://ve42.co/Crowther2015
Galaxy, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiGalaxy
Counting Galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope via NASA - https://ve42.co/CountingGalaxies
Conselice, C. J., Wilkinson, A., Duncan, K., & Mortlock, A. (2016). The evolution of galaxy number density at z8 and its implications. The Astrophysical Journal, 830(2), 83. - https://ve42.co/Conselice2016
Sagan, C., & Druyan, A. (2011). Pale blue dot: A vision of the human future in space. Ballantine books.

Images & Video:
Clip of Titan’s Surface, NASA via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn3-0a19sC8
Clips of Pluto Had it Coming, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nqT7XrYRPc
Image of Solar System Objects - https://ve42.co/SolarSystemObjects


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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures


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Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius and Derek Muller
Additional research & fact checking by Gregor Čavlović
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Ivy Tello and Alondra Vitae
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno and Zyan Treadwell
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius and Han Evans

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, StoryBlocks and by courtesy of NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/SDO, NASA JPL, NASA/JPL-Caltech NASA GSFC, NASA HQ, NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio, NCSA, A. Kritsuk, M. Norman

Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard

Here’s what happens when you just keep zooming in. Use code veritasium at https://incogni.com/veritasium to get an exclusive 60% off an annual Incogni plan.

A big thank you to Magnus Garbrecht from the University of Sydney for showing us around the lab and for his feedback on the script.

Special thanks to Quentin Ramasse for his expertise on the video.

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates - https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
0:00 Why is it hard to see atoms?
2:12 How does an electron microscope work?
4:09 Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)
5:11 Spherical Aberration
8:55 Field Ion Microscope
11:05 Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM)
13:24 Probe microscopes
14:02 An unlikely solution
18:08 Seeing atoms

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Join us on Patreon for early access videos, bonus content, and to support Veritasium! https://ve42.co/PatreonDE

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, and wolfee

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV


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References:
Busch, H. (1926). Berechnung der Bahn von Kathodenstrahlen im axialsymmetrischen elektromagnetischen Felde. Annalen Der Physik - https://ve42.co/Busch1926
Ruska, E. (1986). The development of the electron microscope and of electron microscopy. Nobel Lecture - https://ve42.co/Ruska1986
Scherzer, O. (1936) - https://ve42.co/Scherzer1936
Jensen, G. (2015). Part 1: EM Lenses. Caltech - https://ve42.co/Jensen2015
Field Ion Microscope via Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/FieldIon
Transmission Electron Microscope via Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/MicroscopeTEM
Albert V. Crewe biography via UChicagoNews Microscopy Society of America - https://ve42.co/CreweBio
McMullan, D. (1993). Scanning Electron Microscopy 1928 - 1965. Microscopy Society of America, Cincinnati - https://ve42.co/McMullan1993
Electric and Magnetic Field Lenses via MIT - https://ve42.co/LensesMIT
Haider, M. et al. (1998). Towards 0.1 nm resolution with the first spherically corrected transmission electron microscope. Journal of Electron Microscopy - https://ve42.co/Haider1998_1
Haider, M. et al. (1998). Electron microscopy image enhanced. Nature - https://ve42.co/Haider1998_2
Krivanek, O. et al. (2022). Aberration correction in the STEM. CRC Press EBooks - https://ve42.co/Krivanek2022
Crewe, A. V., et al. (1970). Visibility of Single Atoms. Science - https://ve42.co/Crewe1970
Secrets of Size: Atoms to Supergalaxies via the BBC - https://ve42.co/AtomsBBC
Pennycook, S. J. (2012). Seeing the atoms more clearly: STEM imaging from the Crewe era to today. Ultramicroscopy - https://ve42.co/Pennycook2012
Rose, H. H. (2009). Historical aspects of aberration correction. Journal of Electron Microscopy - https://ve42.co/Rose2009
Kavli Prize in Nanoscience via kavliprize.org - https://ve42.co/Kavli2020
Vogt, T. (2019) Aberration-Corrected Electron Microscopy - https://ve42.co/Vogt2019

Images & Video:
Available here - https://ve42.co/AtomsVisuals

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Directed by Gregor Čavlović, Derek Muller, and Tim Usborne
Written by Gregor Čavlović, Tim Usborne, Emily Zhang, and Casper Mebius
Edited by Trenton Oliver and Charlie Grayley
Animated by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Emma Wright, and Andrew Neet
Illustrated by Jakub Misiek and Maria Gusakovich
Filmed by Charles Clements
Additional research by Gabe Strong, Geeta Thakur, and Emili Gyles
Produced by Casper Mebius, Derek Muller, Emily Zhang, Gregor Čavlović, Rob Beasley Spence, Tori Brittain, Gabe Strong, Luke Lewis, and Matthew Cavanagh
Thumbnail contributions by Ben Powell, Ren Hurley, and Peter Sheppard
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Made for ABC TV Catalyst http://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/ as an extended version of my Comparing Temperatures video: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hNGJ0WHXMyE

Adhesives based on gecko skin can hold huge weights – without sticking to anything. Head to https://brilliant.org/Veritasium to start your free trial. The first 200 of you will get 20% off Brilliant’s annual premium subscription.

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Thanks to Dr. Mark Cutkosky, Tony Chen, Amar Hajj-Ahmad, and the rest of the Biomimetics and Dexterous Manipulation Lab at Stanford University for showing us the power of gecko adhesives.

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References:
Russell, A. P., Stark, A. Y., & Higham, T. E. (2019). The integrative biology of gecko adhesion: historical review, current understanding, and grand challenges. Integrative and comparative biology, 59(1), 101-116. – https://ve42.co/Russell2019

Hajj-Ahmad, A., Suresh, S. A., and Cutkosky, M. R. (June 6, 2021). "Cutting to the Point: Directly Machined Metal Molds for Directional Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." ASME. J. Micro Nano-Manuf. – https://ve42.co/Hajj-Ahmad2021

Kerst, Capella F., "Gecko inspired adhesives : permanent practical manufacturing, new materials, and applications," PhD Thesis, Stanford University, December 2020. – https://ve42.co/Kerst2020

Suresh, S.A. "Engineering Gecko-Inspired Adhesives." Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2020. [Online]. – https://ve42.co/Suresh2020

Suresh, S.A., Kerst, C.F., Cutkosky, M.R., Hawkes, E.W. "Spatially variant microstructured adhesive with one-way friction." Journal of the Royal Society Interface. 2019. – https://ve42.co/Suresh2019

Glick, P., Suresh, S.A., Ruffatto III, D., Cutkosky, M.R., Tolley, M.T., and Parness, A. "A soft robotic gripper with gecko-inspired adhesive." Robotics and Automation Letters. 2018. – https://ve42.co/Glick2018

Christensen, D.L., Hawkes, E.W., Suresh, S.A., Ladenheim, K. and Cutkosky, M.R., "µTugs: Enabling Microrobots to Deliver Macro Forces with Controllable Adhesives," IEEE/ICRA 2015 (preprint). – https://ve42.co/Christensen2015

Hawkes, E. W., "Applying Dry Adhesives to the Real World," Ph.D. thesis, Stanford University, 2015. – https://ve42.co/Hawkes2015

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
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Written by Derek Muller & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Derek Muller & Albert Leung
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Exec. Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

The rainiest place on earth isn’t where you might expect. Get exclusive NordVPN deal here ➵ https://NordVPN.com/veritasium. It’s risk free with Nord’s 30 day money-back guarantee!

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join this list to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

▀▀▀
Huge thanks to Okouchi-San and Dr. Sakai and everyone at NIED and the Large Scale Rainfall Simulator for their time, expertise and access to this amazing facility.

A big thank you to Prof. Olga Mavrouli and Prof. Bill Schulz for their invaluable expertise on the mechanisms of landslides.

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References:
Ulbrich, C. W. (1983). Natural variations in the analytical form of the raindrop size distribution. Journal of climate and applied meteorology, 1764-1775. – https://ve42.co/Ulbrich83

Van Boxel, J. H. (1997, November). Numerical model for the fall speed of rain drops in a rain fall simulator. In Workshop on wind and water erosion (Vol. 5, pp. 77-85). – https://ve42.co/Boxel87

Canuti, P., Focardi, P., & Garzonio, C. (1985). Correlation between rainfall and landslides. Bulletin of Engineering Geology & the Environment, 32(1).

Tsaparas, I., Rahardjo, H., Toll, D. G., & Leong, E. C. (2002). Controlling parameters for rainfall-induced landslides. Computers and geotechnics, 29(1), 1-27. – https://ve42.co/Tsaparas2002

Nakamura, H., & Oosawa, M. (2021, March). Effects of the underground discharge channel/reservoir for small urban rivers in the Tokyo area. In IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science (Vol. 703, No. 1, p. 012029). IOP Publishing. – https://ve42.co/Nakamura21

Guthrie, R. H., & Evans, S. G. (2004). Magnitude and frequency of landslides triggered by a storm event, Loughborough Inlet, British Columbia. Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences, 4(3), 475-483. – https://ve42.co/Guthrie2004

Images & Video:
Miyako, Iwate Tsunami via ANNnewsCH - https://ve42.co/Miyako2011
Mount Onake Volcano via BBC News - https://ve42.co/BBCOnake
Typhoon Jebi via Al Jazeera - https://ve42.co/TyphoonJebi
East Asia Typhoons via CBC News - https://ve42.co/TyphoonCBC
Atami Landslide via The Quint - https://ve42.co/Atami2021
Atami Landslide via news.com.au - https://ve42.co/2ndAtami2021
Sendai Earthquake via ANNnewsCH - https://ve42.co/SendaiQuake
Nagasaki Mudslide via The Telegrap - https://ve42.co/NagasakiMudslide
Wajima Landslide via Guardian News - https://ve42.co/WajimaLandslide
Drone Rainfall Test via AIZAWAchan - https://ve42.co/DroneRain
Car Rainfall Test via TIER IV - https://ve42.co/CarRainTest
Rainfall Simulator via NIED - https://ve42.co/RainfallSim1
External Footage of Simulator via NIED - https://ve42.co/RainfallSim2
Landslide Simulations via NIED - https://ve42.co/RainfallSim3
Typhoon Prapiroon via Force Thirteen - https://ve42.co/TyphoonPrapiroon
Yanohigashi Floods via CNA - https://ve42.co/YanohigashiFloods
Japan Floods via The Telegraph - https://ve42.co/TelegraphFlood
Japan Floods via euronew - https://ve42.co/EuroNewsFlood
Typhoon Hagibis via Guardian News - https://ve42.co/TyphoonHagibis
Typhoon Hagibis via SCMP - https://ve42.co/TyphoonHagibisSCMP
Satellite Imagery of Hagibis via Force Thirteen - https://ve42.co/HagibisSatellite
Tokyo Flood Control System via NikkeiAsia.com - https://ve42.co/FloodControl
Landslides Footage via Underworld - https://ve42.co/MonsterLandslides
Norway Landslide via ABC7 - https://ve42.co/NorwayLandslide
Planet Destruction via BBC - https://ve42.co/BBCDestruction
B.C. Climate Change Danger via CBC News - https://ve42.co/BCClimateChange
Canada’s Logging Roads via CBC News - https://ve42.co/CBCLogging

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi

▀▀▀
Directed by Petr Lebedev
Written by Petr Lebedev
Edited by Peter Nelson
Additional Research by Gregor Čavlović
Animated by Fabio Albertelli
Illustrations by Jakub Misiek
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Derek Muller
Produced by Petr Lebedev, Han Evans and Gregor Čavlović
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound

The General Theory of Relativity tells us gravity is not a force, gravitational fields don't exist. Objects tend to move on straight paths through curved spacetime. Thanks to Caséta by Lutron for sponsoring this video. Find out more at: https://www.lutron.com/veritasium

Huge thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis for hours of consulting on this video so I could get these ideas straight in my own brain. Check out his YouTube channel: https://ve42.co/gfl or his books: https://ve42.co/GFLbooks

Amazing VFX, compositing, and editing by Jonny Hyman
2D animations by Ivy Tello
Filmed by Steven Warren and Raquel Nuno
Special thanks to Petr Lebedev for reviews and script consultation
Music by Jonny Hyman and from Epidemic Sound https://epidemicsound.com

Rocket made by Goodnight and Co.
Screen images in rocket by Geoff Barrett

Slow motion rocket exhaust footage from Joe Barnard at BPS.Space
https://www.youtube.com/channe....l/UCILl8ozWuxnFYXIe2

The kilogram, mole, kelvin, and ampere will be redefined by physical constants. For a limited time, get 3 months of Audible for just $6.95 a month: http://audible.com/VERITASIUM or text VERITASIUM to 500500

Will this be the last video I make about SI units? Quite possibly. There's something about being so precise and defining the systems within which science works. When we can more accurately and routinely measure a kilogram, a mole, a kelvin and an ampere, then we can make better observations, we can better detect anomalies and improve our theories. That is why this is so important to me.

Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
Donal Botkin, Michael Krugman, Ron Neal, Nathan Hansen, James M Nicholson, Terrance Shepherd, Stan Presolski

Special thanks to NIST: http://nist.gov

Additional graphics by Ignat Berbeci

Music from http://epidemicsound.com "Experimental1"

How a feud in Russia led to modern prediction algorithms.
👉 To try everything Brilliant has to offer for free for a full 30 days, visit https://brilliant.org/veritasium. You’ll also get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates - https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
A huge thank you to Brian Hayes, David Aldous, Geoff Engelstein, Jeffrey Rosenthal, Jimmy He, Mark Priestley, Michael Choi, Peter Norvig, Sam Power, and Thomas Haigh for their invaluable expertise and contributions to this video.

And a special thank you to Madeline Johnson for her excellent fact-checking.

▀▀▀
0:00 The Law of Large Numbers
4:37 What is a Markov Chain?
9:43 Ulam and Solitaire
12:21 Nuclear Fission
15:46 The Monte Carlo Method
16:32 The first search engines
19:07 Google is born
25:16 How does predictive text work?
27:10 Are Markov chains memoryless?
29:41 How to perfectly shuffle a deck of cards

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References:
https://ve42.co/RefsMarkov

Images & Video:
https://ve42.co/7Z

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, armedtoe, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Ibby Hadeed, JT, Jeromy Johnson, Jon Jamison, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Meekay, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Bush, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robert Oliveira, Sam Lutfi, TTST, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee

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Writers: Kaela Albert, Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Producer & Director: Kaela Albert
Editors: Peter Nelson & Jack Saxon
Camera Operators: Gabe Strong, Gregor Cavlovic & Derek Muller
Animator: Andrew neet, Emma Wright, Fabio Albertelli & Ivy Trello
Illustrator: Caine Esperanzo, Jakub Misiek & Maria Gustanovich
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Researchers: Darius Garewal, Gabe Strong & Emilia Gyles
Thumbnail Designers: Ren Hurley & Ben Powell
Production Team: Rob Beasley Spence, Casper Mebius, Sulli Yost and Henry Van Dyck
Executive Producers: Derek Muller & Casper Mebius
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5 and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

My entry to the techNyou Science Ambassadors competition, visit www.facebook.com/talkingtechnology and www.youtube.com/technyouvids to find out more about these guys.

People have witnessed supernovae for millennia, but what threat do they pose to life on Earth? This video is sponsored by Brilliant. You can get started for free, or the first 200 people to sign up via https://brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription.

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A massive thanks to Prof. Hans-Thomas Janka for helping us with the physics of supernovae and GRBs. A massive thanks to Prof. Brian Thomas for all of his help with the terrestrial effects of supernovae and GRBs. This video would not have been possible without them. Also thanks to Dr. Luke Barnes for his initial help with the literature search.

Hydrogen bomb vs Supernova fact was taken from this great article by xkcd/Randall Munroe – https://what-if.xkcd.com/73/ (based on the calculation by Andrew Karam, 2002)

Cosmic bubble footage from
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/ne....ws/1000-light-year-w

Neutrino driven SN explosion simulations from https://iopscience.iop.org/art....icle/10.1088/2041-82

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References:

Melott, A. et al. (2019). Hypothesis: Muon radiation dose and marine megafaunal extinction at the End-Pliocene supernova. Astrobiology, 19(6), 825-830. – https://ve42.co/Melott1

Thomas, B. C. et al. (2016). Terrestrial effects of nearby supernovae in the early Pleistocene. The Astrophysical Journal Letters, 826(1), L3 – https://ve42.co/Thomas1

Melott, A. L., & Thomas, B. C. (2019). From cosmic explosions to terrestrial fires?. The Journal of Geology, 127(4), 475-481. – https://ve42.co/Melott2

Fields, B. et al. (2019). Near-Earth supernova explosions: Evidence, implications, and opportunities. arXiv preprint arXiv:1903.04589. – https://ve42.co/Fields1

Thomas, B. C., Atri, D., & Melott, A. L. (2021). Gamma-ray bursts: not so much deadlier than we thought. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 500(2), 1970-1973. – https://ve42.co/Thomas2

Melott, A. et al. (2004). Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Ordovician mass extinction?. International Journal of Astrobiology, 3(1), 55-61. – https://ve42.co/Melott3

Firestone, R. B. (2014). Observation of 23 supernovae that exploded less than 300 pc from Earth during the past 300 kyr. The Astrophysical Journal, 789(1), 29. – https://ve42.co/firestone1

Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino emission from supernovae. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08713. – https://ve42.co/Janka1

Janka, H. T., & Hillebrandt, W. (1989). Neutrino emission from type II supernovae-an analysis of the spectra. Astronomy and astrophysics, 224, 49-56. – https://ve42.co/Janka2

Janka, H. T. (2017). Neutrino-driven explosions. arXiv preprint arXiv:1702.08825. – https://ve42.co/Janka3

Karam, P. A. (2002). Gamma and neutrino radiation dose from gamma ray bursts and nearby supernovae. Health physics, 82(4), 491-499. – https://ve42.co/Karam1

Melott, A. L., Thomas, et al.. (2017). A supernova at 50 pc: effects on the Earth's atmosphere and biota. The Astrophysical Journal, 840(2), 105. – https://ve42.co/Melott4

Ludwig, P., et al. (2016). Time-resolved 2-million-year-old supernova activity discovered in Earth’s microfossil record. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(33), 9232-9237. – https://ve42.co/Ludwig1

Gritschneder, et al. (2011). The supernova triggered formation and enrichment of our solar system. The Astrophysical Journal, 745(1), 22. – https://ve42.co/Gritschneder1

Motizuki, Y., Takahashi, et al. (2009). An Antarctic ice core recording both supernovae and solar cycles. arXiv preprint arXiv:0902.3446. – https://ve42.co/Motizuki

Zucker, C. et al. (2022). Star formation near the Sun is driven by expansion of the Local Bubble. Nature, 601(7893), 334-337. – https://ve42.co/Zucker1

Hirata, K. et al.(1987). Observation of a neutrino burst from the supernova SN1987A. – https://ve42.co/Hirata1

Hayes, L. A., & Gallagher, P. T. (2022). A Significant Sudden Ionospheric Disturbance Associated with Gamma-Ray Burst GRB 221009A. Research Notes of the AAS, 6(10), 222.

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Written by Petr Lebedev & Derek Muller
Edited by Fabio Albertelli
Animation by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Alex Drakoulis, Ivy Tello, Mike Radjabov, and Charlie Davies
Filmed by Derek Muller
Additional Research by Kovi Rose & Katie Barnshaw
Video/photos supplied by NASA, ESA, Pond5, and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound & Jonny Hyman
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

This government warehouse keeps our entire society up to standard. Part of this video was sponsored by Google Domains. Take the first step to get online with a domain name from Google Domains - go to domains.google/veritasium to get 20% off your first year. #GoogleDomains

▀▀▀
Thanks to Rich Press and NIST for the great visit.
Thanks to Dr. Steve Choquette, Dr. Ben Place, and Dr. Johanna Camara for teaching us about the world of Standard Reference Materials.
You can check out all the cool work going on at NIST here: https://www.nist.gov/

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References:

NIST (2022). Standard Reference Materials. – https://ve42.co/WhyStandard2022

Montgomery, R. & Bercik, I. (2022). NIST Standard Reference Materials 2022 Catalog. – https://ve42.co/SRMCatalog

Vincent, J. (2022). Made to measure: why we can’t stop quantifying our lives. The Guardian –
https://ve42.co/Vincent2022

Proffitt, A. (2022). NIST Develops Monkeypox Reference Materials, Sees Growing Role in Outbreak Response. Diagnostics World. – https://ve42.co/Proffitt2022

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
James Sanger, Louis Lebbos, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

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Written by Derek Muller & Emily Zhang
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello & Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller, Trenton Oliver, and Emily Zhang
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 & Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Earth has been closer to Nuclear War more times than you’d think. Head over to
https://hensonshaving.com/veritasium and enter code 'Veritasium' for 100 free blades with the purchase of a razor. Make sure to add both the razor and the blades to your cart for the code to take effect.

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References:
List of Broken Arrows -- https://ve42.co/AtomicArchive https://ve42.co/BrokenArrowsReport
Declassified Goldsboro Report -- https://ve42.co/Goldsboro
Operation ChromeDome -- https://ve42.co/OperationChromeDome
CIA website -- https://ve42.co/CIA

Cataclysmic cargo: The hunt for four missing nuclear bombs after a B-52 crash -- https://ve42.co/WoPo
THE LAST FLIGHT OF HOBO 28 -- https://ve42.co/lastflight
The Voice of Larry Messinger is from this documentary -- https://ve42.co/Messinger
Even Without Detonation, 4 Hydrogen Bombs From ’66 Scar Spanish Village -- https://ve42.co/NYTPalomares
Decades Later, Sickness Among Airmen After a Hydrogen Bomb Accident -- https://ve42.co/NYTPalomares2
Picture of ReVelle -- https://ve42.co/JackReVelle1
Great NPR where the audio of ReVelle is from -- https://ve42.co/JackReVelle2
CIA Website -- https://ve42.co/CIA


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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, Jesse Brandsoy, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Mario Bottion, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

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Directed by Petr Lebedev
Written by Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Petr Lebedev, Han Evans, and Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

The sun has been producing light for about five billion years but where does all its energy come from? The most common idea is that the sun is burning gas - like a giant fireball in the sky. If this were true, the sun would have gone out long ago. So how is the sun actually fuelling itself? It is converting its own mass into energy. By combining protons (the nucleus of hydrogen) into helium, it squeezes some mass into energy - 4.3 billion kg per second. It is Einstein's famous E=mc^2 which gives us the quantitative relationship between mass and energy, where c is the speed of light.

The strange natural material that reshaped the world. Sponsored by Ground News -
Go to https://groundnews.com/Ve to see through media misconceptions and get all sides of every story. Subscribe to save 40% off the unlimited Vantage Plan through our link.

If you’re looking for a molecular modelling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

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A huge thanks to Professor James Busfield, Dr. Katrina Cornish, and Dr. Judit Puskas

We’re incredibly grateful to Toby Samples and the team at ARDL for their time and expertise.

Thanks also to Joe Jackson, Dr. Kevin Krause, Dr. Peter Polyak, Donald Shultz, Professor Robert Weiss for all their help on the project.

▀▀▀
0:00 Where does rubber come from?
2:59 What is rubber?
5:10 Why is rubber so stretchy?
6:29 The problem with natural rubber
9:02 Cured Rubber
15:23 Vulcanisation
18:41 What rubber is used in tires?
22:54 How fungi could destroy the world economy
29:17 Synthetic rubber vs natural rubber
38:20 Why are some people allergic to latex?

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References: https://ve42.co/RubberRefs

Images & Video: https://ve42.co/RubberImgRefs

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, armedtoe, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Ibby Hadeed, Jeromy Johnson, Jon Jamison, JT, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Bush, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robert Oliveira, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, Walter Flinn, and wolfee.

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Writers - Sulli Yost & Casper Mebius
Producer & Director - Sulli Yost
Editors - Jack Saxon & Peter Nelson
Camera Operators - Adam Bonomo, Jacob Ruocchio-Cole, Henry van Dyck, Thomas Matheis, Derek Muller & Sulli Yost
Animators - Allama Nandi, Andrew Neet, Emma Wright, Ivy Tello, Fabio Albertelli & Rokas Viksraitis
Illustrators - Jakub Misiek & Maria Gusakovich
Assistant Editor - James Stuart
Researchers - HyoJeong Choi, Callum Cuttle & Gabe Strong
Thumbnail Designers - Ren Hurley, Ben Powell & Abdallah Rabah
Production Team - Zoe Heron, Casper Mebius, Josh Pitt, Rob Beasley Spence, Henry van Dyck & Sulli Yost
Executive Producers - Casper Mebius & Derek Muller
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

High-energy rechargeable batteries seemed impossible, until we made them. Sponsored by CodeRabbit. Cut code review time and bugs in half. Try CodeRabbit at https://coderabbit.link/veritasium

If you’re looking for a molecular modelling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

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0:00 What’s inside a battery?
4:11 How does a battery work?
7:15 How did we increase battery power?
11:13 The first rechargeable lithium battery
13:29 The Tiny Needles That Kill Batteries
16:06 Goodenough? We can do better
20:07 The birth of the lithium-ion battery
27:10 Why do batteries explode?
29:31 Blowing up a battery

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A massive thank you to Dr Billy Wu, Dr Sam Cooper, Dr Derek Sui, Professor Magda Titirici, Dr Jingyu Feng, Dr Monica Marinescu, Li Ren Thow, Genlin Liu and Sam Riley; and to Professor Guillermo Rein, Dr Harry Mitchell, Hanna Berry, and Dr Nick Kalogeropoulos at Imperial College London for their invaluable contributions to this video. And a big thank you to Conrad Duncan for all his help in pulling everything together.

We’re incredibly grateful to Kurt Kelty and the team at General Motors for their time and expertise.

Thanks also go to Dr Yuzhang Li and Prof Jay Morton Turner for all their help on the project.

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References: https://ve42.co/RefsBatteries

Image References: https://ve42.co/ImgRefsBatt

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:

Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, armedtoe, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Ibby Hadeed, JT, Jeromy Johnson, Jon Jamison, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Bush, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Robert Oliveira, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, Ubiquity Ventures, Walter Flinn, wolfee

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Writers: Emilia Gyles, Casper Mebius, Gregor Čavlović & Derek Muller
Producer & Director: Emilia Gyles
Editor: Trenton Oliver
Camera Operators: Tas Underwood, Emilia Gyles, Gregor Čavlović & Derek Muller
Animators: Andrew Neet, Emma Wright, Fabio Albertelli, Mike Radjabov & Rokas Viksraitis
Illustrators: Jakub Misiek, Maria Gusakovich, Isaac McRee, Nataly Zhuk & Kaitlyn Chille
Assistant Editor: James Stuart
Researchers: HyoJeong Choi, Aakash Singh Bagga & Gabe Strong
Thumbnail Designers: Ren Hurley, Ben Powell & Abdallah Rabah
Production Team: Rob Beasley Spence & Josh Pitt
Executive Producers: Derek Muller & Casper Mebius
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

Half of the ordinary baryonic matter has been tough to find but Fast Radio Bursts made it possible to detect the WHIM. Thanks to Kiwico for sponsoring this video! For 20% off go to https://kiwico.com/veritasium or use code VERITASIUM at checkout.

Special thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis https://ve42.co/gfl

Nature paper: A census of baryons in the Universe from localized fast radio bursts
https://ve42.co/whim

Research and Writing by Max Levy, Derek Muller and Jonny Hyman
Editing, Animations, Audio Mix & Mastering by Jonny Hyman
Filmed by Raquel Nuno
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Music from Epidemic Sound https://epidemicsound.com

This video is sponsored by Brilliant. The first 200 people to sign up via https://brilliant.org/veritasium get 20% off a yearly subscription. Astronomers think there should be 5 times as much dark matter as ordinary matter – a shadow universe that makes up most of the mass in the universe. But after decades of trying, no experiments have found any trace of dark matter – except one.

A massive thanks to the wonderful people at the ARC Centre of Excellence for Dark Matter Physics https://www.centredarkmatter.org for showing us around and being on camera – Fleur Morrison, A/Prof Phillip Urquijo, Prof Elisabetta Barberio, Madeleine Zurowski and Grace Lawrence.
Thanks to Leo Fincher-Johnson and everyone at the Stawell gold mine for having us.
Massive thanks to Prof. Geraint Lewis – Geraint has been Veritasium’s go-to expert for anything astrophysics and cosmology related. Please check out his website, and buy his books, they’re great – https://www.geraintflewis.com
Thanks to Prof. Timothy Tait for the help to make sure we got the science right.
Thanks to Ingo Berg for illustrating the effect of dark matter on the rotation of a galaxy https://beltoforion.de/en/spir....al_galaxy_renderer/s

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Galaxy cluster simulation from IllustrisTNG – https://www.tng-project.org
Venn Diagram of Dark Matter from Tim Tait – https://ve42.co/venn
The Bullet Cluster Image from Magellan, Hubble and Chandra telescopes – https://ve42.co/BC2
Bullet cluster animation from Andrew Robertson / Institute for Computational Cosmology / Durham University – https://ve42.co/BC3

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Bernabei, R., Belli, P., Cappella, F., Cerulli, R., Dai, C. J., d’Angelo, A., ... & Ye, Z. P. (2008). First results from DAMA/LIBRA and the combined results with DAMA/NaI. The European Physical Journal C, 56(3), 333-355. – https://ve42.co/DAMA2008

Zwicky, F. (1933). Die rotverschiebung von extragalaktischen nebeln. Helvetica physica acta, 6, 110-127. – https://ve42.co/Zwicky1

Zwicky, F. (1937). On the Masses of Nebulae and of Clusters of Nebulae. The Astrophysical Journal, 86, 217. – https://ve42.co/Zwicky2

Rubin, V. C., & Ford Jr, W. K. (1970). Rotation of the Andromeda nebula from a spectroscopic survey of emission regions. The Astrophysical Journal, 159, 379. – https://ve42.co/Rubin1

Bosma, A., & Van der Kruit, P. C. (1979). The local mass-to-light ratio in spiral galaxies. Astronomy and Astrophysics, 79, 281-286. – https://ve42.co/Bosma1

Milgrom, M. (1983). A modification of the Newtonian dynamics as a possible alternative to the hidden mass hypothesis. The Astrophysical Journal, 270, 365-370. – https://ve42.co/mond1

Sanders, R. H., & McGaugh, S. S. (2002). Modified Newtonian dynamics as an alternative to dark matter. Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics, 40(1), 263-317. – https://ve42.co/Mond2

M. Markevitch; A. H. Gonzalez; D. Clowe; A. Vikhlinin; L. David; W. Forman; C. Jones; S. Murray & W. Tucker (2004). "Direct constraints on the dark matter self-interaction cross-section from the merging galaxy cluster 1E0657-56". Astrophys. J. 606 (2): 819–824. – https://ve42.co/BC1

Great website about the CMB – http://background.uchicago.edu..../~whu/intermediate/d

Galli, S., Iocco, F., Bertone, G., & Melchiorri, A. (2009). CMB constraints on dark matter models with large annihilation cross section. Physical Review D, 80(2), 023505. – https://ve42.co/CMB1

Antonello, M., Barberio, E., Baroncelli, T., Benziger, J., Bignell, L. J., Bolognino, I., ... & Xu, J. (2019). The SABRE project and the SABRE Proof-of-Principle. The European Physical Journal C, 79(4), 1-8. – https://ve42.co/SABRE1


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Special thanks to Patreon supporters: Inconcision, Kelly Snook, TTST, Ross McCawley, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, Avi Yashchin, John H. Austin, Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Dmitry Kuzmichev, Matthew Gonzalez, Eric Sexton, john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Micah Mangione, MJP, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Dumky, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Michael Schneider, jim buckmaster, Juan Benet, Ruslan Khroma, Robert Blum, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Vincent, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Clayton Greenwell, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi, Ron Neal

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Animation by Ivy Tello and Mike Radjabov
Filmed by Derek Muller and Petr Lebedev
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Image
B-roll supplied by Stawell Gold Mine
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

Kodak detected the first atomic bomb before anyone else figured it out. Then they made a deal not to tell anyone. Thanks to HBO Max, and their new show raised by Wolves for sponsoring this video! https://rb.gy/alghwn

Thanks to Uranium: Twisting the Dragon's Tail for the opening clip: https://www.pbs.org/show/urani....um-twisting-dragons-

References:
Albuquerque Tribune Bulletin, July 16, 1945 – https://www.marshallfoundation.....org/library/documen

Webb, J. H. (1949). The fogging of photographic film by radioactive contaminants in cardboard packaging materials. Physical Review, 76(3), 375.

Julian Webb at Oak Ridge – Snavely, B. B. (1989). Julian H. Webb. PhT, 42(7), 87.https://physicstoday.scitation.....org/doi/pdf/10.1063

Radium in watch dials – https://www.epa.gov/radtown/radioactivity-antiques

A 1958 video about how Kodak film is made, noting the careful monitoring of radioactive contaminants – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9qjBJOFImaU&t=597s&ab_channel=OwenMorgan

Radioactive fallout in 1951 - https://www.nytimes.com/1951/0....2/03/archives/increa

1998 senate hearing – https://www.govinfo.gov/conten....t/pkg/CHRG-105shrg44

Institute of Medicine and National Research Council. 1999. Exposure of the American People to Iodine-131 from Nevada Nuclear-Bomb Tests: Review of the National Cancer Institute Report and Public Health Implications. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. https://doi.org/10.17226/6283. https://www.cancer.gov/about-c....ancer/causes-prevent

Baby Teeth Survey – Reiss, L. Z. (1961). Strontium-90 absorption by deciduous teeth. Science, 134(3491), 1669-1673.

Strontium 90 and Cancer rates – Gould, J. M., Sternglass, E. J., Sherman, J. D., Brown, J., McDonnell, W., & Mangano, J. J. (2000). Strontium-90 in deciduous teeth as a factor in early childhood cancer. International Journal of Health Services, 30(3), 515-539.

Wine forensics – Hubert, P., Perrot, F., Gaye, J., Médina, B., & Pravikoff, M. S. (2009). Radioactivity measurements applied to the dating and authentication of old wines. Comptes Rendus Physique, 10(7), 622–629. doi:10.1016/j.crhy.2009.08.007

Strontium 90 in forensics – Maclaughlin-Black, S. M., Herd, R. J., Willson, K., Myers, M., & West, I. E. (1992). Strontium-90 as an indicator of time since death: a pilot investigation. Forensic science international, 57(1), 51-56.

Research and Writing by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Jonny Hyman

Filmed and edited by Derek Muller
Animations by Ivy Tello and Jonny Hyman
Music by Jonny Hyman
Additional Music from:
Epidemic Sound https://epidemicsound.com "Seaweed"
Kevin MacLeod https://incompetech.com "Lightless dawn"
Craig Conrad https://www.craigconard.com/royaltyfree "ASTRAL"

Celsius never devised nor used the scale that now bears his name.

Veritasium is now on Patreon: http://patreon.com/veritasium

Special thanks to Michael Stevens of Vsauce! http://youtube.com/vsauce1

More info about Celsius and temperature scales: http://wke.lt/w/s/2I6Nu

References for this video:

A History of the Thermometer and its uses in Meteorology by W. E. Knowles Middleton

Absolute Zero and the Conquest of Cold by Tom Shachtman

The Science of Measurement, A Historical Survey by Herbert Arthur Klein

Lehrbuch der Chemie by Jöns Jakob Berzelius

Special Thanks to the Uppsala University Museum
I filmed this in Uppsala in the summer of 2012! So I've been thinking about this idea for a very long time. I'm glad to finally have it out there in the world.

The Vikings suffered many hardships living in the north of Europe: long, cold winters and importantly a lack of sunlight. Luckily, they had cod.
Check out Vitamania: https://ve42.co/cod

When making a video about vitamins I thought the story would mainly be about supplement pills, whether we should or shouldn't take them and how they're made. But what I found out is vitamins have a remarkable story that affects many more aspects of our lives. For example the Vikings needed a source of vitamin D to last the dark winter months and for their children to develop strong, healthy bones, avoiding rickets.

Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
a human, Albert Jachowicz-Brzeziński, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Brent Stewart, Chris Vargas, Chuck Lauer Vose, Clip Tree, Coale Shifflett, Colin Bellmore, DALE HORNE, Eric Velazquez, Fedor Indutny, Fran Rodriguez, James Wong, Jasper Xin, Joar Wandborg, Johnny, Jorge Angel Sandoval, June Kang, Kevin Beavers, Kishore Tipirneni, Levan Ferr, Listen Money Matters, Manuel Zürcher, Mark Bevilacqua, Mathias Göransson, Michael Bradley Wirz, Michael Krugman, Mohammed Al Sahaf, Nicholas Hastings, OddJosh, Patrick Čalija, Peter Tajti, Philipp Volgger, Roberto Rezende, Robin DeBank, Ron Neal, Stan Presolski, Swante Scholz, Tiago Bruno, Tige Thorman, Warrior8252

This video was filmed by Harry Panagiotidis
Researched and written by Derek Muller and Jonny Hyman
Editing, animation and music by Jonny Hyman
Cod liver oil animation by Ivy Tello
Vitamania was written, directed and produced by Sonya Pemberton