Gamma-ray bursts are not only incredible to study, but their discovery has an epic story all its own. Today Phil takes you through some Cold War history and then dives into what we know. Bursts come in two rough varieties: Long and short. Long ones are from hypernovae, massive stars exploding, sending out twin beams of matter and energy. Short ones are from merging neutron stars. Both kinds are so energetic they are visible for billions of light years, and both are also the birth announcements of black holes.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Gamma Ray Bursts and the Cold War 00:45
Where Do Gamma Ray Bursts Come From? 3:26
What Causes Gamma Ray Bursts? 6:11
Kinds of Gamma Ray Bursts: Long and Short 8:35
What Would Happen if a Gamma Ray Burst Hit Earth? 10:24
Review 12:53
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Nuclear Bomb Images via Wikimedia Commons:
Operation Upshot Knothole https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....File:Operation_Upsho
Ivy Mike https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IvyMike2.jpg
Castle Bravo https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Castle_Bravo#/media/
Upshot Knothole GRABLE https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....File:Upshot-Knothole
President Kennedy signs the Limited Nuclear Test Ban Treaty https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Partial_Nuclear_Test [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Vela http://www.losangeles.af.mil/s....hared/media/photodb/ [credit: USAF]
The Crab Nebula https://www.nasa.gov/multimedi....a/imagegallery/image [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester, A. Loll (ASU)]
Solar Flare http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/sunearth/news/Ne [credit: NASA/SDO/AIA]
Gamma Ray Burst http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=2 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Conceptual Image Lab]
Four ALMA antennas on the Chajnantor plain http://www.eso.org/public/images/alma-jfs-2010-10/ [credit: ESO/José Francisco Salgado (josefrancisco.org)]
Gamma Ray Burst 970228 https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo9730b/ [credit: Andrew Fruchter (STScI), Elena Pian (ITSRE-CNR), and NASA/ESA]
HST/STIS Image of the optical afterglow of w:GRB 970508 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....GRB_970508#/media/Fi [credit: STScI/NASA]
Black Holes: Monsters in Space http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/nustar/multimedi [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Naked-Eye Gamma-ray Burst Model for GRB 080319B http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA/Swift/Cruz deWilde]
2008 GRB http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/218810main_grb_ [credit: NASA/Swift/Stefan Immler, et al.]
GRB Data http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/134782main_GRB_ [credit: NASA]
Imagine two massive stars born together as a binary star http://chandra.harvard.edu/pho....to/2005/j0806/wd_lg. [credit: NASA/GSFC/D. Berry]
Colliding Binary Neutron stars http://chandra.harvard.edu/res....ources/animations/ne [credit: NASA/D.Berry]
Black Hole Devours a Neutron Star http://chandra.harvard.edu/res....ources/animations/ne [credit: NASA/D.Berry]
Eta Carinae https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Eta_Carinae#/media/F [credit: Jon Morse (University of Colorado) & NASA Hubble Space Telescope]
WR 104: A Pinwheel Star System http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap140603.html [credit: P. Tuthill (U. Sydney) & J. Monnier (U. Michigan), Keck Obs., ARC, NSF]
Swift HD Beauty Shot http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center]
Swift's 500 Gamma-ray Bursts http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center]

This is the story of how a young Englishman named William Shakespeare stormed London's theater scene in the late 16th century, and wrote a bunch of plays and poems that have had pretty good staying power. We'll learn about Shakespeare's beginnings, his family, and how he broke into theater

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Eric Prestemon, Kathrin Benoit, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Divonne Holmes à Court, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, Indika Siriwardena, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, Evren Türkmenoğlu, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, mark austin, Ruth Perez, Malcolm Callis, Ken Penttinen, Advait Shinde, Cody Carpenter, Annamaria Herrera, William McGraw, Bader AlGhamdi, Vaso, Melissa Briski, Joey Quek, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Alex S, Mayumi Maeda, Kathy & Tim Philip, Montather, Jirat, Eric Kitchen, Moritz Schmidt, Ian Dundore, Chris Peters, Sandra Aft, Steve Marshall
--

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In which John Green ACTUALLY teaches about the Civil War. In part one of our two-part look at the US Civil War, John looks into the causes of the war, and the motivations of the individuals who went to war. The overarching causes and the individual motivations were not always the same, you see. John also looks into why the North won, and whether that outcome was inevitable. The North's industrial and population advantages are examined, as are the problems of the Confederacy, including its need to build a nation at the same time it was fighting a war. As usual, John doesn't get much into the actual battle-by-battle breakdown. He does talk a little about the overarching strategy that won the war, and Grant's plan to just overwhelm the South with numbers. Grant took a lot of losses in the latter days of the war, but in the end, it did lead to the surrender of the South.

If you want to learn more about the Civil War, we recommend these books:
Battle Cry of Freedom by James McPherson: https://bit.ly/3jAtBzo
The Civil War by Shelby Foote: https://bit.ly/38VXTKZ

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. There were many causes of the American Civil War and events that led to disunion: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/causes-of-the-amer
Once the war started, its outcome was determined by the different abilities and resources of the divided North and South: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/a-nation-divided-n

Learn more about Black Americans in the Civil War in episode #18 of Crash Course Black American History: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_NgdnsjPFNE

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Basic Facts of the Civil War 1:21
Free and Slave States 1:46
Causes of the Civil War 2:15
Religion and the Civil War 3:19
Union Advantages in the Civil War 4:24
Confederate Advantages in the Civil War 5:11
Was the Union's Victory Inevitable? 5:53
Mystery Document 6:43
Ulysses S. Grant 7:39
Union Weaknesses in the Civil War 8:18
Turning Points in the Civil War 9:20
Lincoln's Reelection 10:47
Credits 11:28

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In 1955, the Supreme Court ruled unanimously that public schools should be racially integrated, and overturned the separate but equal doctrine established in Plessy v Ferguson decades before. This was made possible by a concerted legal effort spearheaded by the NAACP. Beginning in the 1930s, the NAACP's legal defense fund (led by Thurgood Marshall at the time of the Brown Decision) pursued a strategy of bringing cases to court that would expand the civil rights of Black Americans. This multi-decade effort culminated in the Brown decision, with many other victories along the way.

Clint's book, How the Word is Passed is available now! https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

VIDEO SOURCES

Rachel Devlin, A Girl Stands at the Door: The Generation of Young Women Who Desegregated America's Schools. New York: Basic Books, 2018.
Justin Driver, The Schoolhouse Gate: Public Education, the Supreme Court, and the Battle for the American Mind. New York: Pantheon Books, 2018.
Charles Ogletree, Jr. All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half-Century of Brown V. Board of Education. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2004.
James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002.
https://www.britannica.com/bio....graphy/Thurgood-Mars
https://www.law.virginia.edu/s....tatic/uvalawyer/html
Klarman, Michael J. "How Brown Changed Race Relations: The Backlash Thesis." The Journal of American History 81, no. 1 (1994): 81-118. Accessed July 29, 2021. doi:10.2307/2080994.
https://www.npr.org/sections/t....hetwo-way/2018/03/26
https://www.nps.gov/people/oliver-brown.htm


Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
Dave Freeman, Hasan Jamal, DL Singfield, Lisa Owen, Jeremy Mysliwiec, Shannon McCone, Amelia Ryczek, Ken Davidian, Stephen Akuffo, Toni Miles, Erin Switzer, Steve Segreto, Michael M. Varughese, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel Stevens, Vincent, Michael Wang, Stacey Gillespie (Stacey J), Jaime Willis, Alexis B, Burt Humburg, Aziz Y, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Rachel Creager, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Divonne Holmes à Court, Eric Koslow, Jennifer Dineen, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Jason Rostoker, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, Les Aker, William McGraw, ThatAmericanClare, Rizwan Kassim, Sam Ferguson, Alex Hackman, Jirat, Katie Dean, Avi Yashchin, NileMatotle, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Justin, Mark, Caleb Weeks
__

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In which John Green teaches you about what westerners call the middle ages and the lives of the aristocracy...in Japan. The Heian period in Japan lasted from 794CE to 1185CE, and it was an interesting time in Japan. Rather than being known for a thriving economy, or particularly interesting politics, the most important things to come out of the Heian period were largely cultural. There was a flourishing of art and literature in the period, and a lot of that culture was created by women. The Tale of Genji by Murasaki Shikibu was the classic piece of literature of the day, and it gave a detailed look into the way the Aristocrats of the Heian period lived. While this doesn't give a lot of insight into the lives of daily people, it can be very valuable, and the idea of approaching history from a cultural perspective is a refreshing change from the usual military or political history that survives from so many eras.

Citation 1: Morris, Ivan, The World of the Shining Prince: Court Life in Ancient Japan. Vintage Books. 2013. p. 5
Citation 2: Morris, p. 14
Citation 3: Morris, p. 67
Citation 4: Morris, p. 114
Citation 5: Morris, p. 147
Citation 6: Quoted in Morris, p. 112
Citation 7: Morris, p. 198

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In which John Green teaches you about World War II, a subject so big, it takes up two episodes. This week, John will teach you how the United States got into the war, and just how involved America was before Congress actually declared war. John will actually talk a little about the military tactics involved, and he'll get into some of the weaponry involved, specifically the huge amount of aerial bombing that characterized the war, and the atomic bombs that ended the war in the Pacific.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. Americans entered World War II after the attack on Pearl Harbor: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/the-attack-on-pear
A call for soldiers led to an early civil rights victory, the Tuskegee Airmen: https://www.commonlit.org/texts/tuskegee-airmen
America led the invasion of Normandy that would end the war, and American troops helped to liberate surviving Jews from Nazi concentration camps throughout Europe: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/liberation-of-nazi

---
Learn more about WWII in these other Crash Course videos:
Crash Course World History:
World War II (38): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q78COTwT7nE
World War II, A War for Resources (220): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H-2q-QMUIgY

Crash Course European History:
World War II (38): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Hs_JMydrxZM
World War II Civilians and Soldiers (39): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rlx6ur_D51s
The Holocaust, Genocides, and Mass Murder of WWII (40): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iQeDvnapdlg
Post-World War II Recovery (42): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nlp068CmQaE

Crash Course Black American History:
World War II (31): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U7wrwPnQVg4
---

Chapters:
Introduction: WWII 00:00
American Isolationism Pre-WWII 1:07
American Support for Allies in WWII 3:38
Pearl Harbor 5:03
WWII Fighting in the Pacific 5:43
WWII Fighting in Europe 6:35
Mystery Document 7:30
The End of WWII 8:38
Hiroshima, Nagasaki, & the Atomic Bomb 9:25
Credits 12:54


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We’ve all heard the phrase “opposites attract.” It may or may not be true for people, but it’s definitely true in organic chemistry. In this episode of Crash Course Organic Chemistry, we’re learning about electronegativity, polarity, resonance structures, and resonance hybrids. We’ll practice a very important skill for this course that will help us avoid a lot of memorization in the future: electron pushing. It’ll be a lot of trial and error at first, but we all start somewhere!

Episode Sources:
“THINK BIG! Must the molecules of life always be Left-Handed or Right-Handed?” Smithsonian Magazine.
Spinoff 2004 - “A NATURAL WAY TO STAY SWEET”, NASA.

Series Sources:
Brown, W. H., Iverson, B. L., Ansyln, E. V., Foote, C., Organic Chemistry; 8th ed.; Cengage Learning, Boston, 2018.
Bruice, P. Y., Organic Chemistry, 7th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc., United States, 2014.
Clayden, J., Greeves, N., Warren., S., Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press, New York, 2012.
Jones Jr., M.; Fleming, S. A., Organic Chemistry, 5th ed.; W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 2014.
Klein., D., Organic Chemistry; 1st ed.; John Wiley & Sons, United States, 2012.
Louden M., Organic Chemistry; 5th ed.; Roberts and Company Publishers, Colorado, 2009.
McMurry, J., Organic Chemistry, 9th ed.; Cengage Learning, Boston, 2016.
Smith, J. G., Organic chemistry; 6th ed.; McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2020.
Wade., L. G., Organic Chemistry; 8th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc., United States, 2013.

***
Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Phil Simmons, Alexander Thomson, Mark & Susan Billian, Eric Z, Alan Bridgeman, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Ron Lin, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Eric Prestemon, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El, Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Tom Trval, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Justin Zingsheim, Andrei Krishkevich, Jirat, Brian Thomas Gossett, SR Foxley, Ian Dundore, Jason A Saslow, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks, Sam Buck, Catherine Conroy, Patty Laqua, Leonora Rossé Muñoz, Stephen Saar, John Lee
--

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This week, Stan Muller teaches you how intellectual property law functions internationally. Like, between countries. Well, guess what. There's kind of no such thing as international law. But we can talk about treaties. There is a bevy of international treaties that regulate how countries deal with each others' IP. The upside is that this cooperation tends to foster international trade. The downside is that these treaties tend to stifle creativity by making it harder to shorten copyright terms. You win some, you lose some.

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Sandra Aft, Brad Wardell, Christian Ludvigsen, Robert Kunz, Jason, A Saslow, Jacob Ash, Jeffrey Thompson, Jessica Simmons, James Craver, Simun Niclasen, SR Foxley, Roger C. Rocha, Nevin, Spoljaric, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jessica Wode

--
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How do astronomers make sense of the vastness of space? How do they study things so far away? Today Phil talks about distances, going back to early astronomy. Ancient Greeks were able to find the size of the Earth and from that the distance to and the sizes of the Moon and Sun. Once the Earth/Sun distance was found, parallax was used to find the distance to nearby stars, and that was bootstrapped using brightness to determine the distances to much farther stars.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
How did we calculate the Earth's Size? 1:07
THE Astronomical Unit (AU) = 149,597,870.7 km 3:12
Depth Perception & Parallax 5:39
Light Years & Parsecs 7:31
Brightness Indicates Distance 9:07
Review 10:30
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Lunar Ecplise http://www.slate.com/content/d....am/slate/blogs/bad_a [credit: Phil Plait]
Venus & Mercury [credit: Phil Plait]
Venus Transit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=34mXua1n_FQ [credit: NASA]
Black Drop Venus Transit https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Black_drop_effect#me [credit: Wikimedia Commons, H. Raab, Johannes-Kepler-Observatory]
New Horizons Approaching Pluto and Charon https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....New_Horizons#/media/ [credit: NASA/JHU APL/SwRI/Steve Gribben]
Radio Telescopes Diagram http://scitechdaily.com/images..../Radio-Telescopes-Se [credit: Alexandra Angelich, NRAO/AUI/NSF]
61 Cygni https://archive.stsci.edu/cgi-bin/dss_search?v=poss1_red&r=21+06+54.60&d=%2B38+44+44.9&e=J2000&h=30&w=30&f=gif&c=none&fov=NONE&v3= [credit: Caltech / National Geographic Society / STScI]
Proxima Centauri https://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1343a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Dying Star http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/64884main_image [credit: NASA, ESA, HEIC, and The Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA)]
Exploding Star http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia..../imagegallery/image_ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester, A. Loll (ASU)]
Animation of a Variable Star http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1323j/ [credit: NASA, ESA, M. Kornmesser]
Hubble's High-Definition Panoramic View of the Andromeda Galaxy http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and L.C. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, and R. Gendler]

Honestly, “spreadsheets” are kind of the vegetables of the business world -- the very idea of them makes some people queasy. But that’s ok! They can be intimidating, but they’re not impossible to understand. Today we’re going to learn to love ‘em, because basic accounting can make or break a business. If we lose track of expenses or overestimate a revenue stream, we might end up questioning where all the money has gone.

Software Advice: https://blog.hubspot.com/sales..../small-business-acco

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Indika Siriwardena, Avi Yashchin, Timothy J Kwist, Brian Thomas Gossett, Haixiang N/A Liu, Jonathan Zbikowski, Siobhan Sabino, Zach Van Stanley, Jennifer Killen, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Tim Curwick, David Noe, Shawn Arnold, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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In which John Green kicks off Crash Course US History! Why, you may ask, are we covering US History, and not more World History, or the history of some other country, or the very specific history of your home region? Well, the reasons are many. But, like it or not, the United States has probably meddled in your country to some degree in the last 236 years or so, and that means US History is relevant all over the world. In episode 1, John talks about the Native Americans who lived in what is now the US prior to European contact. This is a history class, not archaeology, so we're mainly going to cover written history. That means we start with the first sustained European settlement in North America, and that means the Spanish. The Spanish have a long history with the natives of the Americas, and not all of it was positive. The Spanish were definitely not peaceful colonizers, but what colonizers are peaceful? Colonization pretty much always results in an antagonistic relationship with the locals. John teaches you about early Spanish explorers, settlements, and what happened when they didn't get along with the indigenous people. The story of their rocky relations has been called the Black Legend. Which is not a positive legend.

Chapters:
Introduction to Crash Course US History 00:00
Native North Americans 0:45
Were Native North Americans 'Primitive?' 1:08
Native North American Populations 1:52
Life in Pre-Columbian America 3:06
Class and Society in Native American Tribes 4:25
Spanish Colonization in North America 5:32
Mystery Document 7:58
The Problem with the Black Legend 9:31
Credits 10:46

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In 2006, a movie took on authoritarianism and the violent aftershocks of the Spanish Civil War—all through the eyes of an innocent young girl and the fairy tale world she discovers in the woods. Pan's Labyrinth is both a beautifully crafted fairy tale, and harrowing R rated adventure film. In this episode of Crash Course Film Criticism, Michael Aranda talks us through Guillermo Del Toro's film, Pan's Labyrinth.

***

Check out all 15 films we'll be talking about below!!!

Citizen Kane
Aliens
Where Are My Children?
Selma
In the Mood For Love
Do the Right Thing
Lost In Translation
Apocalypse Now
Pan's Labyrinth
The Limey
Three Colors: Blue
The Eagle Huntress
Moonlight
Beasts of No Nation
2001: A Space Odyssey

***

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

The Latest from PBS Digital Studios: https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list...

***

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In which John Green discusses the strange and mutually beneficial relationship between a republic, the city-state of Venice, and an Empire, the Ottomans--and how studying history can help you to be a better boyfriend/girlfriend. Together, the Ottoman Empire and Venice grew wealthy by facilitating trade: The Venetians had ships and nautical expertise; the Ottomans had access to many of the most valuable goods in the world, especially pepper and grain. Working together across cultural and religious divides, they both become very rich, and the Ottomans became one of the most powerful political entities in the world. We also discuss how economic realities can overcome religious and political differences (in this case between Muslims and Christians), the doges of Venice, the sultans of the Ottoman empire, the janissaries, and the so-called slave aristocracy of the Ottoman Empire, and how money and knowledge from the Islamic world helped fuel and fund the European Renaissance. Also, there's a They Might Be Giants joke.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Venice 1:02
Venetian Trade 1:26
Piazza San Marco 2:48
Venetian Imports, Exports, & Economy 3:45
Venetian Government 4:25
The Ottomans 4:46
Ottoman Sultans 5:21
An Open Letter to Ottoman Eunuchs 7:15
The Ottomans' and Venetians' Relationship 8:12
Credits 9:38
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If you really want to read about Ottoman eunuchs (warning: it's explicit), here you go: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eunuch#Ottoman_Empire
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This week, we're learning about sonnets, and English Literature's best-known purveyor of those fourteen-line paeans, William Shakespeare. We'll look at a few of Willy Shakes's biggest hits, including Sonnet 18, "Shall I compare thee to a summer's day," Sonnet 116, "Let me not to the marriage of true minds admit impediment," and Sonnet 130, "My mistresses's eyes are nothing like the sun." We'll talk about what makes a sonnet, a little bit about their history, and even a little bit about how reading poetry helps us understand how to be human beings.

Consider supporting local book stores by purchasing your books through our Bookshop affiliate link https://bookshop.org/shop/complexly​​ or at your local book seller.

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In which John Green teaches you about some of the colonies that were not in Virginia or Massachusetts. Old New York was once New Amsterdam. Why they changed it, I can say; ENGLISH people just liked it better that way, and when the English took New Amsterdam in 1643, that's just what they did. Before the English got there though, the colony was full of Dutch people who treated women pretty fairly and allowed free Black people to hold jobs. John also discusses Penn's Woods, also known as Pennsylvania. Pennsylvania was (briefly) a haven of religious freedom, and William Penn dealt relatively fairly with the natives his colony displaced. Of course, as soon as Penn died, the colonist started abusing the natives immediately. We venture as far south as the Carolina colonies, where the slave labor economy was taking shape. John also takes on the idea of the classless society in America, and the beginning of the idea of the American dream. It turns out that in spite of the lofty dream that everyone had an equal shot in the new world, there were elites in the colonies. And these elites tended to be in charge. And then their kids tended to take over when they died. So yeah, not quite an egalitarian paradise. In addition to all this, we get into the Salem Witch Trials, the treatment of women in the colonies, and colonial economics. Oh yeah, one more thing, before you comment about how he says we're talking about the American Revolution next week, but the end screen says Seven Years War, consider that perhaps the Seven Years War laid the groundwork for the revolution to happen.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
New Amsterdam Becomes New York 0:55
Pennsylvania and the Quakers 2:05
South Carolina 3:37
Mystery Document 4:08
Bacon's Rebellion 5:14
The Dominion of New England and The Tolerance Act 6:17
The Salem Witch Trials 7:31
Colonial American Economics 8:05
Colonial American Society 9:11
Women's Roles in Colonial America 9:51
Credits 11:05

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How do art and morality intersect? Today we look at an ethically questionable work of art and discuss R. G. Collingwood’s view that art is best when it helps us live better lives. We’ll go over Aristotle’s concept of catharsis and how it can resolve the problem of tragedy. We are also exploring the paradox of fiction and the debate between autonomism and moralism.

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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The Milky Way is our neighborhood in the universe. It’s a galaxy and there are many others out there. Galaxies contain gas, dust, and billions of stars or more. They come in four main shapes: elliptical, spiral, peculiar, and irregular. Galaxies can collide, and grow in size by eating each other.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction: Galaxies 00:00
Spiral Galaxies 3:00
Elliptical Galaxies 5:22
Galactic Collisions 6:18
Peculiar Galaxies 8:46
Irregular Galaxies 9:29
Review 11:08
--
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Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--
PHOTOS/VIDEOS
NGC 5363 http://aftar.uaa.alaska.edu/gallery/details.cfm?img=316&type=# [credit: T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage) and H. Schweiker (WIYN and NOAO/AURA/NSF)]
Panorama of Spiral Galaxy, M31 http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im1259.html [credit: Local Group Survey Team and T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage)]
Animation of a variable star http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1323j/ [credit: NASA, ESA, M. Kornmesser]
Hubble M31 PHAT Mosaic http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and L.C. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, and R. Gendler]
Elliptical - Death of giant galaxies spreads from the core https://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1508/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Spiral - HUBBLE VIEW OF BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY MESSIER 83 http://sci.esa.int/hubble/5359....0-hubble-view-of-bar [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Credit: William Blair (Johns Hopkins University)]
Peculiar - Colliding galaxies make love, not war https://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic0615/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team STScI/AURA)-ESA/Hubble Collaboration]
Irregular - Little Galaxy Explored http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/spitzer/multimed [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/STScI]
Hubble Image of Messier 101 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, K. Kuntz (JHU), F. Bresolin (University of Hawaii), J. Trauger (Jet Propulsion Lab), J. Mould (NOAO), Y.-H. Chu (University of Illinois, Urbana), and STScI]
A poster-size image of the beautiful barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300 http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo0501a/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team STScI/AURA)]
NGC 3344 http://skycenter.arizona.edu/g....allery/Galaxies/NGC3 [credit: Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona]
Flocculent spiral NGC 2841 http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1104/ [credit: NASA, ESA and the Hubble Heritage Team]
Barred Spiral Galaxy NGC1365 https://www.noao.edu/image_gal....lery/html/im1034.htm [credit: SSRO/PROMPT and NOAO/AURA/NSF]
Magnificent Details in a Dusty Spiral Galaxy http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: The Hubble Heritage Team]
Panning across Messier 77 http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1305b/ [credit: NASA, ESA, Digitized Sky Survey 2. Acknowledgement: A. van der Hoeven]
Hubble Mosaic of the Sombrero Galaxy http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo0328a/ [credit: NASA/ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team]
Spiral Galaxy NGC 4565 http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0525a/ [credit: ESO]
M87 (with Jet) http://skycenter.arizona.edu/g....allery/Galaxies/M87% [credit: Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona]
M59, NGC4621 https://www.noao.edu/image_gal....lery/html/im0579.htm [credit: NOAO/AURA/NSF]
Fulldome simulation of colliding galaxies http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/gal_coll_dome [credit: NASA/STScI]
Antennae Galaxies http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1345a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Terzan 5 Artist’s Concept http://www.sdss3.org/press/ima....ges/20111130.fourtai [credit: Amanda Smith, Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge]
Interacting Galaxy Pair Arp 87 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team]
Doing cartwheels to celebrate the end of an era http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1036a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Hoag's Object http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage Team]
Paranal Nights https://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1401a/ [credit: Y. Beletsky (LCO)/ESO]
Tarantula Nebula http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1023a/ [credit: TRAPPIST/E. Jehin/ESO]
Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2014 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA]

Last week, Hank talked about how stuff mixes together in solutions. Today, and for the next few weeks, he will talk about the actual reactions happening in those solutions - atoms reorganizing themselves to create whole new substances in the processes that make our world the one we know and love. This week, we focus on acids and bases and their proton-exchanging ways.

Watch this video in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel! https://youtu.be/Or2h02mqvD4

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Table of Contents
Chemistry Can Cause Death 00:00
Acids and Bases are Complicated 02:25
Conjugate Bases 05:37
Conjugate Acids 04:48
Acid-Base Stoichiometry 06:49

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Can two people who make the same bad decision bear different levels of moral responsibility? Today, we try to address this question with the concept of moral luck. Hank explains the difference between moral and causal responsibility and the reasons we assign praise and blame.

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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In today's Crash Course Astronomy, Phil takes a look at the explosive history of our cosmic backyard. We explore how we went from a giant ball of gas to the system of planets and other celestial objects we have today.

This episode is sponsored by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Geocentrism vs Heliocentrism 0:51
Makeup of the Solar System 2:38
Is Pluto a Planet? 3:14
Our Solar System 4:24
How Our Solar System Formed 5:36
Planet Formation Depends on Distance to Sun 7:14
Review 8:57

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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PHOTO/VIDEO CREDITS
Sun: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/defa....ult/files/706436main [credit: NASA/ESA]
Jupiter: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images..../hubble/20140515/jup [credit: NASA/ESA]
Geocentric celestial spheres; Peter Apian's Cosmographia (Antwerp, 1539): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C....elestial_spheres#med
Ganymede: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Noaa_ganymede.jp
Mercury: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/ga....llery/sciencePhotos/ [credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington]
Understanding Solar System Dynamics: Orbits and Kepler's Laws (2008): https://archive.org/details/OrbitsAndKeplersLaws
Mercury: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap080116.html
Venus: http://www.msss.com/all_projects/magellan.php
Earth: http://earthobservatory.nasa.g....ov/IOTD/view.php?id=
Mars: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/pho....to_gallery/photogall
Jupiter: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/cassini/multimed
Saturn: http://www.slate.com/content/d....am/slate/blogs/bad_a [credit: Photo by NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute/Gordan Ugarkovic]
Uranus: http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/
Neptune: http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2014/05/1
http://www.nasa.gov/sites/defa....ult/files/hs-2014-29 [credit: JHUAPL/SwRI/Dan Durda]
Bennu’s Journey: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=20220&button=recent
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
Artist's impression of a protoplanetary disk: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P....rotoplanetary_disk#m
Rocky Ring of Debris Around Vega: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/spitzer/multimed [image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Proplyds in the Orion Nebula: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activit....ies/Space_Science/Bo