Escape was one of the many ways that enslaved people resisted their captivity in the system of American slavery. The Underground Railroad was not literally a railroad. It was a network of people, routes, and safe houses that helped people escape from slavery in the south to freedom in the north. Today we'll talk about the origins of the Underground Railroad, the systems that helped people escape, and the people who helped along the route.

Clint's book, How the Word is Passed is available now! https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

SOURCES
https://www.newyorker.com/maga....zine/2016/08/22/the-
http://www.pbs.org/black-cultu....re/shows/list/underg
https://www.nationalgeographic.....org/encyclopedia/un
https://www.theatlantic.com/ma....gazine/archive/2015/
https://www.nps.gov/subjects/u....ndergroundrailroad/w

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#crashcourse #history #undergroundrailroad

In which John Green teaches you about the war that was supposed to end all wars. Instead, it solved nothing and set the stage for the world to be back at war just a couple of decades later. As an added bonus, World War I changed the way people look at the world, and normalized cynicism and irony. John will teach you how the assassination of an Austrian Archduke kicked off a new kind of war that involved more nations and more people than any war that came before. New technology like machine guns, airplanes, tanks, and poison gas made killing more efficient than ever. Trench warfare and modern weapons led to battles in which tens of thousands of soldiers were killed in a day, with no ground gained for either side. World War I washed away the last vestiges of 19th-century Romanticism and paved the way for the 20th-century modernism that we all know and find to be cold and off-putting. While there may not be much upside to WWI, at least it inspired George M. Cohan to write the awesome song, "Over There."

Chapters:
Introduction: The Great War 00:00
Causes of World War I 0:45
Who is to blame for starting WWI? 2:17
Trench Warfare 3:11
Combatants From Around the World 3:42
Casualties of World War I 4:05
Soldiers' Sentiments During the WWI 5:35
An Open Letter to Alcohol 7:37
Outcomes of WWI 8:24
Credits 11:07

Resources:
Over There by George M. Cohan, performed by Bill Murray: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wbggEGUaE28
The Guns of August by Barbara Tuchman: https://bit.ly/37lYqoK

Interested in learning more? Check out these other Crash Course videos about WWI:
How World War I Started: Crash Course World History #209: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Cd2ch4XV84s
Who Started World War I: Crash Course World History #210: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_pFCpKtwCkI
America in World War I: Crash Course US History #30: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y59wErqg4Xg
The Roads to World War I: Crash Course European History #32: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KGlmlSTn-eM
World War I Battlefields: Crash Course European History #33: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IIiDULrXaqQ
WWI's Civilians, the Homefront, and an Uneasy Peace: Crash Course European History #34: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dPXNZkGYJHM
Post-World War I Recovery: Crash Course European History #36: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xzWL2XPBHMk

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In which John Green explores how Spain went from being a middling European power to one of the most powerful empires on Earth, thanks to their plunder of the New World in the 16th and 17th centuries. Learn how Spain managed to destroy the two biggest pre-Columbian civilizations, mine a mountain made of silver, mishandle their economy, and lose it all by the mid-1700s. Come along for the roller coaster ride with Charles I (he was also Charles V), Philip II, Atahualpa, Moctezuma, Hernán Cortés, and Francisco Pizarro as Spain rises and falls, and takes two empires and China down with them.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
The Aztec Civilization 0:45
An Open Letter to Human Sacrifice 2:00
The Inca Civilizaiton 2:52
Spanish Conquistadors in South America 3:44
Spanish Silver Mines in the Americas 5:21
Charles V and Sons 6:09
Silver in China 7:43
Credits 10:03

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We love the internet! It's a wealth of information where we can learn about just about anything, but it's also kind of a pit of information that can be false or misleading. So, we're partnering with Mediawise and the Stanford History Education Group to make this series on Navigating Digital Information. Let's learn the facts about facts!

Special thanks to our partners from MediaWise who helped create this series:
The Poynter Institute
The Stanford History Education Group (sheg.stanford.edu)

Follow MediaWise and their fact-checking work across social:
https://www.instagram.com/mediawise/
https://www.youtube.com/mediawise
https://twitter.com/mediawise
https://www.facebook.com/MediaWise/

MediaWise is supported by Google.

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Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Naman Goel, Patrick Wiener II, Nathan Catchings, Efrain R. Pedroza, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, James Hughes, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Satya Ridhima Parvathaneni, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Kathrin Benoit, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, Advait Shinde, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
--

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In which John Green teaches you about Homer's Odyssey. If it was Homer's If Homer was even real. Anyway, that stuff doesn't really matter. John teaches you the classic, by which I mean classical, epic poem, the Odyssey. The Journey of Odysseus as he made his way home after the conclusion of the Trojan War is the stuff of legend. Literally. John will teach you about the double standard in Greek culture, Odysseus as jerk/hero, ancient PTSD, and cycles of violence. Also, there are no yogurt jokes. So think of that as a gift.

Consider supporting local bookstores by purchasing your books through our Bookshop affiliate link https://bookshop.org/shop/complexly​ or at your local bookseller.


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Dihydrogen monoxide (better known as water) is the key to nearly everything. It falls from the sky, makes up 60% of our bodies, and just about every chemical process related to life takes place with it or in it. Without it, none of the chemical reactions that keep us alive would happen - none of the reactions that sustain any life form on earth would happen - and the majority of inorganic chemical reactions that shape the surface of the earth would not happen either. Every one of us uses water for all kinds of chemistry every day - our body chemistry, our food chemistry, and our laundry chemistry all take place in water.

In today's Crash Course Chemistry, we use Hank's actual dirty laundry (ew) to learn about some of the properties of water that make it so special - its polarity and dielectric property; how electrolytes can be used to classify solutions; and we discover how to calculate a solution's molarity as well as how to dilute a solution using the dilution equation.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Table of Contents
Polarity 02:40
Dielectric Property 04:13
Electrolytes 04:29
Molarity 08:46
Dilution 10:56

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The next entry in our parade of heroes is Rama, the protagonist of the Ramayana, one of India’s oldest stories. We’re going to be talking about Rama’s importance to Hindu culture, and how Rama fits into Campbell’s idea of the Hero’s Journey. Although, Rama may not even be the hero.

***

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Truman Way, Thomas Frank, Indika Siriwardena, D.A. Noe, Cami Wilson, Khaled El Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Tom Trval, mark austin, Ruth Perez, Malcolm Callis, Kathrin Janßen, Ken Penttinen, Advait Shinde, Bob Kunz, Nathan Taylor, Eric Prestemon, Les Aker, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Mayumi Maeda, Kathy & Tim Philip, Jessica Wode, Brian Thomas Gossett, Caleb Weeks, Jirat, Tim Curwick, Eric Kitchen, Daniel Baulig, Moritz Schmidt, Ian Dundore, Chris Peters, SR Foxley, Jason A Saslow
--

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Dihydrogen monoxide (better known as water) is the key to nearly everything. It falls from the sky, makes up 60% of our bodies, and just about every chemical process related to life takes place with it or in it. Without it, none of the chemical reactions that keep us alive would happen - none of the reactions that sustain any life form on earth would happen - and the majority of inorganic chemical reactions that shape the surface of the earth would not happen either. Every one of us uses water for all kinds of chemistry every day - our body chemistry, our food chemistry, and our laundry chemistry all take place in water.

In today's Crash Course Chemistry, we use Hank's actual dirty laundry (ew) to learn about some of the properties of water that make it so special - its polarity and dielectric property; how electrolytes can be used to classify solutions; and we discover how to calculate a solution's molarity as well as how to dilute a solution using the dilution equation.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Table of Contents
Polarity 02:40
Dielectric Property 04:13
Electrolytes 04:29
Molarity 08:46
Dilution 10:56

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

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In which John Green teaches you about the (English) colonies in what is now the United States. He covers the first permanent English colony at Jamestown, Virginia, the various theocracies in Massachusetts, the feudal kingdom in Maryland, and even a bit about the spooky lost colony at Roanoke Island. What were the English doing in America, anyway? Lots of stuff. In Virginia, the colonists were largely there to make money. In Maryland, the idea was to create a colony for Catholics who wanted to be serfs of the Lords Baltimore. In Massachusetts, the Pilgrims and Puritans came to America to find a place where they could freely persecute those who didn't share their beliefs. But there was a healthy profit motive in Massachusetts as well. Profits were thin at first, and so were the colonists. Trouble growing food and trouble with the Natives kept the early colonies from success. Before long though, the colonists started cultivating tobacco, which was a win for everyone involved if you ignore the lung cancer angle. So kick back, light up a smoke, and learn how America became profitable. DON'T SMOKE, THOUGH! THAT WAS A JOKE!

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. Modern Native Americans have varied perspectives on Thanksgiving and the start of European colonization in America. Chuck Larsen's Plymouth Thanksgiving Story reveals a new native and anthropological take on the famous first Thanksgiving meal: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/the-plymouth-thank

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Jamestown, Virginia: The First Successful English Colony 0:43
The Headright System, Indentured Servants, and Slavery in Jamestown 2:20
Tobacco Plantations in the Virginia Colony 3:10
Class Structure in the Virginia Colony 3:54
The Maryland Colony 4:38
The Massachusetts Bay Colony 5:07
Pilgrims, the Mayflower, and the First Thanksgiving 5:27
Governance in the Massachusetts Bay Colony 7:25
Mystery Document 8:01
"City on a Hill" 9:20
Equality and Representation in the Massachusetts Bay Colony 9:50
Credits 11:53

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Today we're learning about the Transatlantic Slave Trade, which brought millions of captive Africans to the Americas between the 16th and 19th centuries, with the largest number of people trafficked between 1700 and 1808. We'll look at the ships and crews that brought enslaved people across the ocean via what was known as the Middle Passage and explore the horrific conditions that these captives endured.  


SOURCES

Africans in America: The Terrible Transformation 1450-1750. PBS. https://to.pbs.org/3botPFQ

The Atlantic Slave Trade: Crash Course World History. https://youtu.be/dnV_MTFEGIY

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African by Olaudah Equiano. https://bit.ly/3uKSYSN

Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion, Volume 1 edited by Junius P. Rodriguez https://bit.ly/3bk4Nb9

Lepore, J. (2005). A World of Possibilities: Slavery and Freedom in Dutch New Amsterdam. In I. Berlin and L. Harris (Eds.), Slavery in New York (p. 57 – 90).

Gomez, Melissa. Charleston Apologizes for City’s Role in Slave Trade. New York Times, June 19, 2018 https://nyti.ms/3fdEVyN



Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
Download here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Check out Clint's book, How the Word is Passed: https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Laura Damon, Andrei Krishkevich, Sam Ferguson, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Brian Thomas Gossett, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks
__

Want to find Crash Course elsewhere on the internet?
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Tumblr - http://thecrashcourse.tumblr.com
Support Crash Course on Patreon: http://patreon.com/crashcourse

CC Kids: http://www.youtube.com/crashcoursekids

SOURCES

Africans in America: The Terrible Transformation 1450-1750. PBS. https://to.pbs.org/3botPFQ

The Atlantic Slave Trade: Crash Course World History. https://youtu.be/dnV_MTFEGIY

The Interesting Narrative of the Life of Olaudah Equiano, or Gustavus Vassa, The African by Olaudah Equiano. https://bit.ly/3uKSYSN

Encyclopedia of Slave Resistance and Rebellion, Volume 1 edited by Junius P. Rodriguez https://bit.ly/3bk4Nb9

Lepore, J. (2005). A World of Possibilities: Slavery and Freedom in Dutch New Amsterdam. In I. Berlin and L. Harris (Eds.), Slavery in New York (p. 57 – 90).

Gomez, Melissa. Charleston Apologizes for City’s Role in Slave Trade. New York Times, June 19, 2018 https://nyti.ms/3fdEVyN


#crashcourse #history #slavery

Radio, Cinema, and Television have been staples in news coverage, entertainment, and education for almost 100 years. But... where did they all come from? Who started what and when and why? In this episode, Hank Green talks to us about their birth and a dead elephant.

***

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Mark Brouwer, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Satya Ridhima Parvathaneni, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Eric Prestemon, Kathrin Benoit, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, Indika Siriwardena, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, Advait Shinde, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Mayumi Maeda, Kathy & Tim Philip, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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In which John Green teaches you about the fall of the Roman Empire, which happened considerably later than you may have been told. While the Western Roman Empire fell to barbarians in 476 CE, the Byzantines in Constantinople continued the Eastern Empire nicely, calling themselves Romans for a further 1000 years. Find out what Justinian and the rest of the Byzantine emperors were up to over there, and how the Roman Empire dragged out its famous Decline well into medieval times. In addition to all this, you'll learn about ancient sports riots and hipster barbarians, too.

Chapters:
Introduction: The Fall of Rome 00:00
Why Did the Roman Empire Fall? Barbarians at the Gates 0:30
Why Did the Roman Empire Fall? Barbarians Inside the Gates 2:07
An Open Letter to Pants 4:10
Constantine and the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire 5:10
Comparing the Eastern & Western Roman Empires 6:57
Emperor Justinian 8:08
The Orthodox and Catholic Churches Split 10:38
Credits 12:06

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Hank explains the extremely complex series of reactions whereby plants feed themselves on sunlight, carbon dioxide and water, and also create some by products we're pretty fond of as well.

This video uses sounds from Freesound.org.

Citations:
http://biology.about.com/od/pl....antbiology/a/aa05060
http://www.rsc.org/Education/T....eachers/Resources/cf
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21598/
http://www.life.illinois.edu/g....ovindjee/paper/gov.h
http://scienceaid.co.uk/biolog....y/biochemistry/photo
http://www.biology-innovation.....co.uk/pages/plant-bi
http://chemistry.about.com/od/....lecturenotesl3/a/pho
http://www.bio.umass.edu/biolo....gy/conn.river/calvin
http://www.talkorigins.org/faq....s/thermo/probability

Table of Contents:
1) Water 1:16
2) Carbon Dioxide 1:32
3) Sunlight/Photons 1:43
4) Chloroplasts 1:57
5) Light Reaction/Light-Dependent 2:42
a. Photosystem II 3:33
b. Cytochrome Complex 5:54
c. ATP Synthase 6:16
d. Photosystem I 7:06
6) Dark Reactions/Light-Independent 7:55
a. Phase 1 - Carbon Fixation 8:50
b. Phase 2 - Reduction 11:31
c. Phase 3 - Regeneration 12:02

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In which John Green teaches you about Imperialism, but not from the perspective of the colonizers. This week John looks at some Asian perspectives on Imperialism; specifically, writers from countries that were colonized by European powers. We'll look at the writings of Sayyid Jamal ad-Din al-Afghani from the Middle East, Liang Qichao from China, and Rabindranath Tagore from India. these voices from the countries that were colonized give us a sense of how conquered people saw their conquerors, and give an insight into what these nations learned from being dominated by Europe. It's pretty interesting, OK? A lot of this episode is drawn from a fascinating book by Pankaj Mishra called The Ruins of Empire: The Revolt Against the West and the Remaking of Asia. You should read it.

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In which John Green teaches you about American women in the Progressive Era and, well, the progress they made. So the big deal is, of course, the right to vote women gained when the 19th amendment was passed and ratified. But women made a lot of other gains in the 30 years between 1890 and 1920. More women joined the workforce, they acquired lots of other legal rights related to property, and they also became key consumers in the industrial economy. Women also continued to play a vital role in reform movements. Sadly, they got Prohibition enacted in the US, but they did a lot of good stuff, too. The field of social work emerged as women like Jane Addams created settlement houses to assist immigrants in their integration into the United States. Women also began to work to make birth control widely available. You'll learn about famous reformers and activists like Alice Paul, Margaret Sanger, and Emma Goldman, among others.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. Suffragists faced a decades-long debate on women’s right to vote: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/address-to-congres
While it was a hard fight to get the vote, women eventually received suffrage in 1920: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/was-hard-fight-to-

Chapters:
Introduction: Women in the Progressive Era 00:00
The Women's Era 1:01
The Women's Christian Temperance Union 1:54
The Role of Women in Politics During the Progressive Era 2:52
National Consumers League 3:15
Women Working Outside the Home 4:08
Mystery Document 4:58
Birth Control 5:57
Why Access to Birth Control Matters 7:07
Jane Addams & The Settlement House Movement 7:47
Women and Electoral Politics 8:13
The 19th Amendment 8:42
The Suffrage Movement 9:03
The National Women's Party 9:44
The Equal Rights Amendment 11:03
The Legacy of the Suffragettes 12:13
Credits 13:00

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Massive stars fuse heavier elements in their cores than lower-mass stars. This leads to the creation of heavier elements up to iron. Iron robs critical energy from the core, causing it to collapse. The shock wave, together with a huge swarm of neutrinos, blasts through the star’s outer layers, causing it to explode. The resulting supernova creates even more heavy elements, scattering them through space. Also, happily, we’re in no danger from a nearby supernova.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction: High Mass Stars 00:00
Core Fusion Creates Heavier Elements 0:51
Other Stages of High Mass Stars 2:22
Silicone & Iron Fusion 3:43
Core Collapse 6:20
Supernova Remnants 8:22
Explosive Nucleosynthesis 9:50
Review 11:04
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Blowing Bubbles http://chandra.harvard.edu/res....ources/animations/pn [credit: NASA/CXC/April Jubett]
The Sizes of Stars http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1030c/ [credit: ESO/M. Kornmesser]
Red giants https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Redgiants. [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Alpha Orionis http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/h....u/db/images/hs-1996- [credit: A. Dupree (CfA), NASA, ESA]
Sun and VY Canis Majoris https://commons.wikimedia.org/....wiki/File:Sun_and_VY [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
Witch Head Nebula and Rigel http://www.deepskycolors.com/a....rchive/2009/11/16/wi [credit: Rogelio Bernal Andreo]
Layers of a massive star https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....User:FT2/scc#/media/ [credit: Wikimedia Commons]
NASA's Swift Reveals New Phenomenon in a Neutron Star http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/swift/bursts/new [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
What is a black hole? http://www.nasa.gov/audience/f....orstudents/k-4/stori [credit: NASA/CXC/M.Weiss]
The Death of Stars http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hubblecast52a [credit: ESA/Hubble]
Giant Mosaic of the Crab Nebula http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia..../imagegallery/image_ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Hester (Arizona State University)]
Hubble and Chandra spot a celestial bauble http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic1018b/ [credit: NASA, ESA, the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA), and NASA/CXC/SAO/J. Hughes]
Vela Supernova Remnant http://www.glitteringlights.co....m/Images/Nebulae/i-p [credit: Marco Lorenzi]
Spica [credit: Phil Plait]
Cassiopeia A https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....Cassiopeia_A#/media/ [credit: Oliver Krause (Steward Observatory) George H. Rieke (Steward Observatory) Stephan M. Birkmann (Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie) Emeric Le Floc'h (Steward Observatory) Karl D. Gordon (Steward Observatory) Eiichi Egami (Steward Observatory) John Bieging (Steward Observatory) John P. Hughes (Rutgers University) Erick Young (Steward Observatory) Joannah L. Hinz (Steward Observatory) Sascha P. Quanz (Max-Planck-Institut fur Astronomie) Dean C. Hines (Space Science Institute)]
Sloshing Supernova http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Video and images courtesy of NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Star Burst http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center Video courtesy of ESA/Hubble/L. Calcada]

This week on Crash Course Econ, Jacob and Adriene are talking about failure. Specifically, we're talking about market failures. When markets don't provide a good or service efficiently, that's a market failure. When markets fail, often governments step in to provide those services. Stuff like public education or military protection are good examples of market failures. So, what are some of the ways governments address, market failures? Well, it's funny you should ask, as we also talk about that in this episode. We'll get into taxes and subsidies and externalities and a bunch of other important stuff this week on Crash Course Econ.

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

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Now that we’re done with the planets, asteroid belt, and comets, we’re heading to the outskirts of the solar system. Out past Neptune are vast reservoirs of icy bodies that can become comets if they get poked into the inner solar system. The Kuiper Belt is a donut shape aligned with the plane of the solar system; the scattered disk is more eccentric and is the source of short-period comets, and the Oort Cloud which surrounds the solar system out to great distances is the source of long-period comets. These bodies all probably formed closer to the Sun and got flung out to the solar system’s suburbs by gravitational interactions with the outer planets.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction: Where Do Comets Come From? 00:00
Kuiper Belt, Scattered Disk, and Oort Cloud 2:52
Long-Period Comets come from the Oort Cloud 4:03
Short-Period Comets come from the Scattered Disk 4:27
Pluto, Plutinos, and other Kuiper Belt Objects 4:47
Oort Cloud Objects 8:25
Review 10:38
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PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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PHOTOS/VIDEOS
HD Long Exposure Star Timelapse https://vimeo.com/34172172 [credit: Jeffrey Beach, Beachfront B-Roll]
Fine Structure in the Comet’s Jets http://blogs.esa.int/rosetta/2....015/01/16/fine-struc http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P....rotoplanetary_disk#m [credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA]
Artist's impression of a protoplanetary disk. [credit: ESO/L. Calçada - ESO]
Creating Gas Giants http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
What is a Sungrazing Comet? http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Pluto/Neptune Orbit http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files..../images/browse/pluto [credit: NASA]
1992 QB1 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mu....ltimedia/gallery/199 [credit: ESO]
Eris http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap060918.html [credit: W. M. Keck Observatory]
Moons of Pluto http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K....erberos_(moon)#/medi [credit: NASA, ESA, and M. Showalter (SETI institute)]
New Horizons Approach http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/common..../content/animations/ [credit: JHUAPL]
Moon http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a....000000/a003800/a0038 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio]
Pluto http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?Category=Planets&IM_ID=20073 [credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute]
Sedna’s Orbit http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Sedna-PIA05 [credit: NASA]
Artist’s Conception of Kuiper Belt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:14-281-KuiperBel [credit: NASA, Wikimedia Commons]
Kuiper Belt World (video) http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/41 [credit: NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]
Pluto Discovery Plates http://azmemory.azlibrary.gov/....cdm/singleitem/colle [credit: Clyde Tombaugh, Lowell Observatory]

In the aftermath of the revolutions and upheaval in 18th and early 19th century Europe, there was a hunger for reform across the continent. Reformers like Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and Auguste Comte proposed radical new ideas, and at the same time, regular people began to stand up and ask for greater equality, and a louder voice in how they were governed. Results were mixed, but a lot of the ideas that emerged during this time are still echoing in our world today.

Sources

-Hosking, Geoffrey. Russia: People and Empire. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1997.
-Hunt, Lynn et al. The Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures. 6th ed. Boston: Bedford St. Martin’s, 2019.
-Judson, Pieter M. The Hapsburg Empire: A New History. Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
-Kent, Susan Kingsley. A New History of Britain: Four Nations and an Empire. New York: Oxford University Press, 2017.
-Sperber, Jonathan. Revolutionary Europe 1780-1850. 2nd ed. London: Routledge, 2017.

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Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Indika Siriwardena, Avi Yashchin, Timothy J Kwist, Brian Thomas Gossett, Haixiang N/A Liu, Jonathan Zbikowski, Siobhan Sabino, Zach Van Stanley, Jennifer Killen, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Tim Curwick, David Noe, Shawn Arnold, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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#crashcourse #history #europeanhistory

In which John compares and contrasts Greek civilization and the Persian Empire. Of course, we're glad that Greek civilization spawned modern western civilization, right? Maybe not. From Socrates and Plato to Darius and Xerxes, John explains two of the great powers of the ancient world, all WITHOUT the use of footage from 300.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
The Persian Empire 0:39
An Open Letter to Aristophanes 3:33
Ionian Greek City-States 5:04
The Persian Wars 5:44
The Peloponnesian War 7:21
Did the Right Side Win the Persian Wars? 9:09
Credits 11:09

Resources:
The Histories of Herodotus: http://goo.gl/I1TM9u
Plato: http://goo.gl/GEcfWX
Plays of Aristophanes: http://goo.gl/xzb9Ff

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