The Milky Way is our neighborhood in the universe. It’s a galaxy and there are many others out there. Galaxies contain gas, dust, and billions of stars or more. They come in four main shapes: elliptical, spiral, peculiar, and irregular. Galaxies can collide, and grow in size by eating each other.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction: Galaxies 00:00
Spiral Galaxies 3:00
Elliptical Galaxies 5:22
Galactic Collisions 6:18
Peculiar Galaxies 8:46
Irregular Galaxies 9:29
Review 11:08
--
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--
PHOTOS/VIDEOS
NGC 5363 http://aftar.uaa.alaska.edu/gallery/details.cfm?img=316&type=# [credit: T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage) and H. Schweiker (WIYN and NOAO/AURA/NSF)]
Panorama of Spiral Galaxy, M31 http://www.noao.edu/image_gallery/html/im1259.html [credit: Local Group Survey Team and T.A. Rector (University of Alaska Anchorage)]
Animation of a variable star http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1323j/ [credit: NASA, ESA, M. Kornmesser]
Hubble M31 PHAT Mosaic http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, J. Dalcanton, B.F. Williams, and L.C. Johnson (University of Washington), the PHAT team, and R. Gendler]
Elliptical - Death of giant galaxies spreads from the core https://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1508/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Spiral - HUBBLE VIEW OF BARRED SPIRAL GALAXY MESSIER 83 http://sci.esa.int/hubble/5359....0-hubble-view-of-bar [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team (STScI/AURA). Credit: William Blair (Johns Hopkins University)]
Peculiar - Colliding galaxies make love, not war https://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic0615/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team STScI/AURA)-ESA/Hubble Collaboration]
Irregular - Little Galaxy Explored http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/spitzer/multimed [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech/STScI]
Hubble Image of Messier 101 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, K. Kuntz (JHU), F. Bresolin (University of Hawaii), J. Trauger (Jet Propulsion Lab), J. Mould (NOAO), Y.-H. Chu (University of Illinois, Urbana), and STScI]
A poster-size image of the beautiful barred spiral galaxy NGC 1300 http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo0501a/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and The Hubble Heritage Team STScI/AURA)]
NGC 3344 http://skycenter.arizona.edu/g....allery/Galaxies/NGC3 [credit: Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona]
Flocculent spiral NGC 2841 http://www.spacetelescope.org/news/heic1104/ [credit: NASA, ESA and the Hubble Heritage Team]
Barred Spiral Galaxy NGC1365 https://www.noao.edu/image_gal....lery/html/im1034.htm [credit: SSRO/PROMPT and NOAO/AURA/NSF]
Magnificent Details in a Dusty Spiral Galaxy http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: The Hubble Heritage Team]
Panning across Messier 77 http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic1305b/ [credit: NASA, ESA, Digitized Sky Survey 2. Acknowledgement: A. van der Hoeven]
Hubble Mosaic of the Sombrero Galaxy http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/opo0328a/ [credit: NASA/ESA and The Hubble Heritage Team]
Spiral Galaxy NGC 4565 http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso0525a/ [credit: ESO]
M87 (with Jet) http://skycenter.arizona.edu/g....allery/Galaxies/M87% [credit: Adam Block/Mount Lemmon SkyCenter/University of Arizona]
M59, NGC4621 https://www.noao.edu/image_gal....lery/html/im0579.htm [credit: NOAO/AURA/NSF]
Fulldome simulation of colliding galaxies http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/gal_coll_dome [credit: NASA/STScI]
Antennae Galaxies http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1345a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Terzan 5 Artist’s Concept http://www.sdss3.org/press/ima....ges/20111130.fourtai [credit: Amanda Smith, Institute of Astronomy, University of Cambridge]
Interacting Galaxy Pair Arp 87 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA, and the Hubble Heritage Team]
Doing cartwheels to celebrate the end of an era http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/potw1036a/ [credit: ESA/Hubble & NASA]
Hoag's Object http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA and The Hubble Heritage Team]
Paranal Nights https://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1401a/ [credit: Y. Beletsky (LCO)/ESO]
Tarantula Nebula http://www.eso.org/public/images/eso1023a/ [credit: TRAPPIST/E. Jehin/ESO]
Hubble Ultra Deep Field 2014 http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/ [credit: NASA, ESA]

Last week, Hank talked about how stuff mixes together in solutions. Today, and for the next few weeks, he will talk about the actual reactions happening in those solutions - atoms reorganizing themselves to create whole new substances in the processes that make our world the one we know and love. This week, we focus on acids and bases and their proton-exchanging ways.

Watch this video in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel! https://youtu.be/Or2h02mqvD4

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Table of Contents
Chemistry Can Cause Death 00:00
Acids and Bases are Complicated 02:25
Conjugate Bases 05:37
Conjugate Acids 04:48
Acid-Base Stoichiometry 06:49

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Can two people who make the same bad decision bear different levels of moral responsibility? Today, we try to address this question with the concept of moral luck. Hank explains the difference between moral and causal responsibility and the reasons we assign praise and blame.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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In today's Crash Course Astronomy, Phil takes a look at the explosive history of our cosmic backyard. We explore how we went from a giant ball of gas to the system of planets and other celestial objects we have today.

This episode is sponsored by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Geocentrism vs Heliocentrism 0:51
Makeup of the Solar System 2:38
Is Pluto a Planet? 3:14
Our Solar System 4:24
How Our Solar System Formed 5:36
Planet Formation Depends on Distance to Sun 7:14
Review 8:57

--

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--

PHOTO/VIDEO CREDITS
Sun: http://www.nasa.gov/sites/defa....ult/files/706436main [credit: NASA/ESA]
Jupiter: http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/images..../hubble/20140515/jup [credit: NASA/ESA]
Geocentric celestial spheres; Peter Apian's Cosmographia (Antwerp, 1539): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C....elestial_spheres#med
Ganymede: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Noaa_ganymede.jp
Mercury: http://messenger.jhuapl.edu/ga....llery/sciencePhotos/ [credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Carnegie Institution of Washington]
Understanding Solar System Dynamics: Orbits and Kepler's Laws (2008): https://archive.org/details/OrbitsAndKeplersLaws
Mercury: http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap080116.html
Venus: http://www.msss.com/all_projects/magellan.php
Earth: http://earthobservatory.nasa.g....ov/IOTD/view.php?id=
Mars: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/pho....to_gallery/photogall
Jupiter: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/cassini/multimed
Saturn: http://www.slate.com/content/d....am/slate/blogs/bad_a [credit: Photo by NASA/JPL/Space Science Institute/Gordan Ugarkovic]
Uranus: http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/
Neptune: http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2014/05/1
http://www.nasa.gov/sites/defa....ult/files/hs-2014-29 [credit: JHUAPL/SwRI/Dan Durda]
Bennu’s Journey: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-bin/details.cgi?aid=20220&button=recent
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
Artist's impression of a protoplanetary disk: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P....rotoplanetary_disk#m
Rocky Ring of Debris Around Vega: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/spitzer/multimed [image credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech]
Proplyds in the Orion Nebula: http://www.esa.int/Our_Activit....ies/Space_Science/Bo

In today’s episode, Hank asks you to consider all the ways people talk about justice and what we really mean when we use that word. We’ll explain various theories of justice, just distribution, and different approaches to punishment.

--

All other images and video either public domain or via VideoBlocks, or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

--

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In which John Green concludes teaching you about Chinua Achebe's Things Fall Apart. You'll learn about the historical contexts of Things Fall Apart, including 19th-century colonization and 20th-century decolonization. We're going to learn a little bit about Achebe's childhood between two cultures, cover Okonkwo's sad, sad end, and even learn a little about The Babysitters Club.

Consider supporting local bookstores by purchasing your books through our Bookshop affiliate link https://bookshop.org/shop/complexly​ or at your local bookseller.


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Chances are, when you hear the phrase "Special Effects," you may have images pop into your mind. The Hulk smashing a city, a lightsaber fight, or maybe an alien world. But effects can be much more subtle and have been around really since the beginning of filmmaking. In this episode of Crash Course Film Production, Lily Gladstone talks about the basics of special effects.

***

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

***

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Today on Crash Course Anatomy & Physiology, Hank breaks down the parts and functions of one of your body's unsung heroes: your epithelial tissue.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Proper Epithelium & Glandular Epithelium 1:38
We're All Just Tubes! 2:12
Cell Shapes: Squamous, Cuboidal, or Columnar 3:34
How Form Relates to Function 4:15
Layering: Simple or Stratified 5:26
Epithelial Cells: Apical & Basal Sides 7:06
Glandular Epithelial Tissue Forms Endocrine & Exocrine Glands 8:20
Review 9:16
Credits 9:54

***
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I'm sure you've all heard about Isaac Newton and that apple that fell on his head and how that was a huge deal to our understanding of gravity. Well... let's talk about that. In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini sits down to talk about the realities of the apple story and how Newtonian Gravity is more than a little important.

***

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Today's Crash Course Chemistry takes a historical perspective on the creation of the science, which didn't really exist until a super-smart, super-wealthy Frenchman put the puzzle pieces together - Hank tells the story of how we went from alchemists to chemists, who understood the law of conservation of mass as proposed by a decapitated aristocrat, and explains how we came to have a greater understanding of how chemical compounds work and eventually a complete understanding of what atoms and molecules are.

Watch this video in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel here: https://youtu.be/HxDjcseTj6s

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Table of Contents
Alchemists to Chemists 01:07
Law of Conservation of Mass 03:25
Decapitated Aristocrat 04:11
Chemical Compounds 05:44
Atoms and Molecules 06:07:1

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This week Craig talks about police searches and seizures. Now, the fourth amendment says that you have the right to be protected against "unreasonable searches and seizures" but what exactly does this mean? Well, it's complicated. The police often need warrants issued with proof of probable cause, but this isn't always the case - such as when you're pulled over for a moving violation. We'll finish up with the limitations of these protections and discuss one group of people in particular that aren't protected equally - students.

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In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank talks about how we learn by observation... and how that can mean beating up an inanimate clown named Bobo.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: The Bobo Doll Experiment 00:00
Social Cognitive Learning 1:05
Limitations of Classical & Operant Conditioning 1:58
Learning Associations 2:38
Learning & Cognition 4:06
Latent Learning 4:58
Observational Learning, Modeling, & Imitation 5:36
Reward Pathways & Mirror Neurons 6:59
Observational Social Learning 7:58
Review & Credits 8:48
--

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Today, Craig is going to dive into the controversy of monetary and fiscal policy. Monetary and fiscal policy are ways the government, and most notably the Federal Reserve, influences the economy - for better or for worse. So we’re going to start by looking at monetary policy, and specifically how the Federal Reserve uses interests rates as a means of controlling (or at least attempting to control) inflation. We’ll then move onto fiscal policy - that is the government’s use of taxation to raise and spend money. It’s all, well, pretty controversial, but as it seems Americans hate taxes the most, monetary policy is most often used - meaning that the Federal Reserve plays a hugely significant role in steering the U.S. economy.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Take the 2017 PBS Digital Studios Survey: http://surveymonkey.com/r/pbsds2017. Today we’re going to create memory! Using the basic logic gates we discussed in episode 3 we can build a circuit that stores a single bit of information, and then through some clever scaling (and of course many new levels of abstraction) we’ll show you how we can construct the modern random-access memory, or RAM, found in our computers today. RAM is the working memory of a computer. It holds the information that is being executed by the computer and as such is a crucial component for a computer to operate. Next week we’ll use this RAM, and the ALU we made last episode, to help us construct our CPU - the heart of a computer.

*CORRECTION*

In our 16x16 Latch Matrix graphic, we inadvertently left off the horizontal row access line above the top row of latches. As a result, the highlighted line for the row at address 12 should actually be one line higher.


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So, it turns out we have an easy time reading emotions in facial expressions, but emotions can straight up kill us! In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank discusses stress, emotions, and their overall impact on our health.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!
--
Chapters:
Introduction: How Emotions Work 00:00
Facial Expressions 1:24
Expressing Emotions 2:18
How Many Emotions Are There? 2:57
Two-Dimensional Model of Emotional Experience 3:29
Defining Stress 4:52
Chronic Stress & the Autonomic Nervous System 6:36
Stress & Heart Disease 7:43
Pessimism & Depression 8:30
Review & Credits 9:30
--
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We make small choices like what to eat for lunch, but we also have to set goals, pick a career, and decide how to invest our hard-earned money. It’s not easy! We don’t want to make a decision out of fear, rather than doing what’s best for us. And we don’t want to regret a big choice and dwell on the “what ifs” either.

So today, we’re going to take a step back, understand how to really look at the decisions we’re making, and learn what not to do when facing a difficult choice.

***

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Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Jonathan Zbikowski, Siobhan Sabino, Zach Van Stanley, Bob Doye, Jennifer Killen, Naman Goel, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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Today we’re going to talk about urban planning — which is the design and regulation of space within urban areas. Urban planning helps weave together economic, social, and environmental goals within a region from work, to play, and living, and unsurprisingly, has a tremendous influence on people’s lives! So today, we’re going to discuss some models we’ve used to describe existing cities such as the Latin American Model, take a look at a planned city and the capital of Brazil, Brasília, and look at the impacts of the US highway system and redlining on minority Americans starting in the 1960s.

#CrashCourse #Geography #UrbanGeography

SOURCES

Planning History
https://www.nationalgeographic.....org/article/chicago
Latin America/Brazil
https://worldgeo.pressbooks.co....m/chapter/middle-and
https://www.researchgate.net/f....igure/Latin-American
https://www.researchgate.net/f....igure/Model-of-Latin
https://www.academia.edu/18612....4/Aztec_City_Plannin
https://www.smartcitiesdive.co....m/ex/sustainableciti
https://www.degruyter.com/docu....ment/doi/10.1515/opa
https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/445/lother=es
http://lanic.utexas.edu/projec....t/etext/llilas/vrp/h
https://www.britannica.com/place/Brasilia
https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-20632277
https://www.sciencedaily.com/r....eleases/2017/09/1709
https://www.degruyter.com/docu....ment/doi/10.1515/opa
https://www.academia.edu/18612....4/Aztec_City_Plannin
http://www.public.asu.edu/~mes....mith9/1-CompleteSet/
Urban Renewal/Redlining
Sharma, Madhuri (2018) "Community Perspectives on Neighborhood Characteristics and Home-Buying Decisions," International Journal of Geospatial and Environmental Research: Vol. 5 : No. 1 , Article 3.  Available at: https://dc.uwm.edu/ijger/vol5/iss1/3 
https://www.cleveland.com/arch....itecture/2017/05/des
https://www.ideastream.org/new....s/redlining-racism-s
https://www.clevescene.com/cle....veland/what-the-hist
https://www.archives.gov/resea....rch/african-american
https://www.nps.gov/CRMJournal..../Winter2006/view1.pd
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_renewal
General Sources
For a free and open source option for Intro to Human Geography, see: https://humangeography.pressbooks.com/
For a free and open source option for World Regional Geography, see: https://worldgeography.pressbo....oks.com/front-matter
Cracking the AP Human Geography Exam: 2020 edition.  The Princeton Review.
Hobbs, Joseph J. Fundamental of World Regional Geography, 4th ed. Cengage. 2017.
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Today we're going to take a look at mineral extraction -- or the removal of rocks and minerals from the Earths' crust -- and examine how this human activity impacts all aspects of Geography. We'll focus on the Democratic Republic of the Congo and take a look at how the mining of minerals such as cobalt, has significantly impacted life in this region.

Sources
https://docs.google.com/docume....nt/d/1YdZ--u297RHCKL

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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
Dave Freeman, Hasan Jamal, DL Singfield, Lisa Owen, Jeremy Mysliwiec, Shannon McCone, Amelia Ryczek, Ken Davidian, Stephen Akuffo, Toni Miles, Erin Switzer, Steve Segreto, Michael M. Varughese, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel Stevens, Vincent, Michael Wang, Stacey Gillespie (Stacey J), Jaime Willis, Alexis B, Burt Humburg, Aziz Y, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Rachel Creager, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Divonne Holmes à Court, Eric Koslow, Jennifer Dineen, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Jason Rostoker, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, Les Aker, William McGraw, ThatAmericanClare, Rizwan Kassim, Sam Ferguson, Alex Hackman, Jirat, Katie Dean, Avi Yashchin, NileMatotle, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Justin, Mark, Caleb Weeks
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#CrashCourse #Geography #Mining

Chemistry raised to the power of AWESOME! That's what Hank is talking about today with Electrochemistry. Contained within, Hank discusses electrochemical reactions, half-reactions, how batteries work, galvanic cells, voltage, standard reduction potential, cell potential, electrolysis, electroplating, and the things that go into making it possible for you to watch this episode of Crash Course Chemistry!

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Table of Contents

Electro-Chemical Reactions 0:13
Half Reactions 1:42
How Batteries Work 1:47
Galvanic Cells 3:18
Calculating Voltage 4:12
Standard Reduction Potential 4:42
Standard Cell Potential 6:03
Electrolysis 7:24
Electroplating 7:02
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So last week we talked about what special interest groups are and how they influence the political system, and today we’re going to focus on why we even have them in the first place. As to avoid getting too cynical, we’re going to focus on five benefits of special interest groups and look at how these factor weigh in a group’s formation and size. We’ll also talk about lobbyists, recent congressional action to limit their influence, and finish with a discussion of both insider and outsider strategies that interest groups use to influence policy.

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Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

All attributed images are licensed under Creative Commons by Attribution 4.0
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