Today we explore what obligations we hold with our personal beliefs. Hank explains epistemic responsibility and the issues it raises with everything from religious belief, to ship owning, to vaccinations.

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Images via Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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The big question in the comments last week was, "BUT WHAT ABOUT ECLIPSES?" Today, Phil breaks 'em down for you.

This episode is sponsored by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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As promised, Phil's sun spotting recommendations:

Astronomers Without Borders (charitable org): http://store.astronomerswithoutborders.org/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=8&products_id=3

Rainbow Symphony glasses: http://www.rainbowsymphony.com/soleclipse.html

Wide variety of viewers from Rainbow Symphony: http://www.eclipseglasses2017.....com/buy-eclipse-glas

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Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
How Do Solar Eclipses Work? 0:52
Umbra & Penumbra 2:04
The Sun's Corona 3:17
Solar Eclipse Totality 4:14
Annular Eclipse 5:09
Can You Look at a Solar Eclipse? 5:32
Lunar Eclipses 6:54
Size of the Earth and Moon 8:24
Review 9:27
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PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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PHOTOS/VIDEOS
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=4
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/f....orstudents/k-4/stori
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....clipse#mediaviewer/F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse_of_Sept
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Solar_eclip
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse#mediavi
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YX2blo1eRk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse#mediavi
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Geometry_of
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Lunar_eclipse_Ap
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L....unar_eclipse#mediavi
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=4

The Silk Road and Ancient Trade: In which John Green teaches you about the so-called Silk Road, a network of trade routes where goods such as ivory, silver, iron, wine, and yes, silk were exchanged across the ancient world, from China to the West. Along with all these consumer goods, things like disease and ideas made the trip as well. As is his custom, John ties the Silk Road to modern life, and the ways that we get our stuff today.

Chapters:
Introduction: The Journey of a T-Shirt 00:00
What Was the Silk Road? 1:03
Nomads, Caravans, and Traders 3:31
The Rise of Silk 4:36
An Open Letter to Billionaires 5:41
Economic Impact of the Silk Road 6:22
The Silk Road and Buddhism 6:40
The Silk Road and Disease 8:20
Credits 9:22

Resources:
Life Along the Silk Road by Susan Whitfield: https://bit.ly/3xmfdTv
The Silk Road: 2000 Years in the Heart of Asia: https://bit.ly/36dGTic

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Hank describes mitosis and cytokinesis - the series of processes our cells go through to divide into two identical copies.

References:
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_....releases/2012-02/wif
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.....edu/faculty/michael.
http://www.genome.gov/Images/p....ress_photos/highres/
http://www.nature.com/nrm/jour....nal/v2/n1/fig_tab/nr
https://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?p=viewimage&id=33
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/multim....edia/mitosis/mitosis

Table of Contents
1. Mitosis 0:24
2. Interphase 3:27
a) Chromatin 3:37
b) Centrosomes 3:52
3) Prophase 4:14
a) Chromosomes 4:18
b) Chromatid 4:31
c) Microtubules 5:07
4) Metaphase 5:22
a) Motor Proteins 5:36
5) Biolography 6:13
6) Anaphase 9:00
7) Telophase 9:15
8) Cleavage 9:25
9) Cytokinesis 9:36

This video contains the following sounds from Freesound.org:
"Swishes.wav" by Pogotron
"Opening Scotch Whisky.mp3" by Percy Duke

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Do we really have free will? Today Hank explores possible answers to that question, explaining theories like libertarian free will and its counterpoint, hard determinism.

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Images via ThinkStock

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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In which John introduces you to quite a lot of Chinese history by discussing the complicated relationship between the Confucian scholars who wrote Chinese history and the emperors (and empress) who made it. Included is a brief introduction to all the dynasties in Chinese history and an introduction to Confucius and the Confucian emphasis on filial piety, the role the mandate of heaven played in organizing China, and how China became the first modern state.

Chapters:
Introduction: China 00:00
Dynasties of China 0:39
The Mandate of Heaven 3:08
The Qin Dynasty 4:59
Confucius and Confucianism 6:32
An Open letter to the Xia Dynasty 8:21
Ren and Li 9:17
The Problem with Early Written Chinese History 9:57
Credits 11:40

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You're already learning on YouTube — why not get college credit for it? https://link.gostudyhall.com/my1

What is college? And should you go? In our first episode of Crash Course How to College, Erica talks us through some of the reasons you may or may not want to go after that degree.

Dr. Erica Brozovsky (from PBS's Otherwords) hosts and breaks down how to apply for, succeed at, and graduate from college. Check out our all new Study Hall Channel (linked above) where you can watch Fast Guides about college majors and even more series.

***
Now you can take top-tier college courses with Study Hall! Study Hall videos are available to watch at no cost, and first-year courses are $25 to sign-up and begin coursework. Once you're satisfied with your grade, receive credit for only $400. Sign up at https://link.gostudyhall.com/my1

Follow Study Hall on socials!
Twitter: https://twitter.com/gostudyhall
Instagram: https://Instagram.com/GoStudyHall
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/GoStudyHall
__________________________________________________________________________
Chapters:
0:00 - Introduction
1:28 - What is college? + Types of colleges
5:42 - Why be an educated person
8:06 - Do you want to go to college?
__________________________________________________________________________
Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:
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#CrashCourse #StudyHall #College

All the magic that we know is in the transfer of electrons. Reduction (gaining electrons) and oxidation (the loss of electrons) combine to form Redox chemistry, which contains the majority of chemical reactions. As electrons jump from atom to atom, they carry energy with them, and that transfer of energy is what makes all life on Earth possible.

Watch this video in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel! https://youtu.be/B-2h7u665AM

Thank you to the following chemistry teachers for their assistance:
James Sarbinoff
Rachel Wentz
Edi González
Lucas Moore
Chris Conley
Addie Clark
Julia Rosinski

Special Thanks to Matt Young at the University of Montana (Geosciences Department, Environmental Biogeochemistry Lab) who helped with the chemical demonstrations.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Today we are moving on from the existence of God to look at the philosophical debate surrounding the traditional divine attributes - omnipotence, omniscience, omnitemporality, and omnibenevolence. We are exploring the puzzles that these attributes create as well as some possible solutions to those puzzles, from Aquinas’ ideas of analogical predication, to the work of Eleanor Stump.

--

"The Avengers" copyright 2012 Marvel Studios
"Suicide Squad" copyright 2016 Warner Bros. Entertainment Inc.
All other images and via Wikimedia Commons licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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In which John Green wraps up revolutions month with what is arguably the most revolutionary of modern revolutions, the Industrial Revolution. While very few leaders were beheaded in the course of this one, it changed the lives of more people more dramatically than any of the political revolutions we've discussed. So, why did the Industrial Revolution happen around 1750 in the United Kingdom? Coal. Easily accessible coal, it turns out. All this, plus you'll finally learn the difference between James Watt and Thomas Newcomen, and will never again be caught telling people that your blender has a 900 Newcomen motor.

Chapters:
Introduction: The Industrial Revolution 00:00
What Was the Industrial Revolution? 1:48
Innovations in the British Textile Industry 2:38
Why did the Industrial Revolution start in Europe? 4:08
An Open Letter to the Steam Engine 4:57
What was going on in China during the Industrial Revolution? 5:35
European Advantages: High Wages and Low Fuel Costs 7:03
What was going on in India during the Industrial Revolution? 9:28
Credits 10:29

Learn more about the Industrial Revolution in these Crash Course videos:
The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course European History #24: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjK7PWmRRyg
The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course History of Science #21: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FCpqN7GmLYk

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As we wrap up Crash Course Philosophy, we’re using the things we’ve learned to explore big issues like the value of life. Today, we’re discussing abortions in cases of fetal abnormality, assisted suicide, and euthanasia. We will consider the standard of substituted judgment and the values people hold on both sides of these issues—values about the sacredness of life, and the importance of a life of quality, as well as the values of personal liberty and avoiding pain.

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

--

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In the 17th century, as the British colonies in the Americas were getting established in places like Jamestown, VA, the system of chattel slavery was also developing. Today, we'll learn about the role that slavery played in early American economy and how slavery became a legally accepted practice in the first place, and how it contributed to the colony’s early economic success. We'll look at the experiences of Anthony Johnson and John Punch to see how legal precedents that greatly influenced the development of slavery were set.

Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
Download here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Clint's book, How the Word is Passed: https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Laura Damon, Andrei Krishkevich, Sam Ferguson, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Brian Thomas Gossett, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks

Sources and References
"Africans in Early North America, 1619-1726." African American Lives: the Struggle for Freedom, by Clayborne Carson et al., Pearson Longman, 2005

Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1975)

Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).

Daina Ramey Berry and Kali Nicole Gross, A Black Women’s History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2020).

Alejandro de la Fuente and Ariela J. Gross, Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020)

Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968)
__

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#crashcourse #history #slavery

In which John Green teaches you about World War I and how it got started. Crash Course doesn't usually talk much about dates, but the way that things unfolded in July and August of 1914 is kind of important to understanding the Great War. You'll learn about Franz Ferdinand, Gavrilo Princip, the Black Hand, and why the Serbian nationalists wanted to kill the poor Archduke. You'll also learn who mobilized first and who exactly started the war. Sort of. Actually, there's no good answer to who started the war, but we give it a shot anyway.

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Hank brings us to the next level of ecological study with ecosystem ecology, which looks at how energy, nutrients, and materials are getting shuffled around within an ecosystem (a collection of living and nonliving things interacting in a specific place), and which basically comes down to who is eating who.

Table of Contents
1) Defining Ecosystems 0:49:1
2) Trophic Structure 4:44:1
a) Primary Producers 5:27
b) Primary Consumers 5:41
c) Secondary Consumers 5:49:1
d) Tertiary Consumers 5:58:2
e) Detrivores 6:08:1
3) Bioaccumulation 8:47

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Check out our new-and-improved Crash Course Biology series here! https://youtube.com/playlist?l....ist=PL8dPuuaLjXtPW_o

And thus begins the most revolutionary biology course in history. Come and learn about covalent, ionic, and hydrogen bonds. What about electron orbitals, the octet rule, and what does it all have to do with a madman named Gilbert Lewis? It's all contained within.

Chapter Timecode:
1. Intro = 00:00
2. Carbon = 01:51
3. Electron Shells = 04:23
4. The Octet Rule = 06:52
5. Gilbert Lewis = 05:09
6. Covalent Bonds = 04:41
7. Polar & Non-Polar Covalent Bonds = 07:58
8. Ionic Bonds = 08:29
9. Hydrogen Bonds = 10:11

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Today we explore the penultimate ethical theory in this unit: contractarianism. Hank explains Hobbes’ state of nature, implicit and explicit contracts, as well as the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and the benefits, and costs, of violating contracts.

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios


--


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In which John Green teaches you about Sub-Saharan Africa! So, what exactly was going on there? It turns out, it was a lot of trade, converting to Islam, visits from Ibn Battuta, trade, beautiful women, trade, some impressive architecture, and several empires. John not only covers the West African Malian Empire, which is the one Mansa Musa ruled, but he also discusses the Ghanian Empire and even gets over to East Africa as well to discuss the trade-based city-states of Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Zanzibar. In addition to all this, John considers emigrating to Canada.

Chapters:
Introduction: African History 00:00
King Mansa Musa of Mali 1:22
Mali, the Berbers, and the Islamization of West Africa 3:23
An Open Letter to Ibn Battula 5:29
The End of the Malian Empire 6:17
The Swahili Civilizations of Eastern Africa 6:55
Credits 9:56

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We talk a lot about Keynesian economics on this show, pretty much because the real world currently runs on Keynesian principles. That said, there are some other economic ideas out there, and today we're going to talk about a few of them. So, if you've been aching to hear about socialism, communism, the Chicago School, or the Austrian School, this episode is for you.

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Fatima Iqbal, Penelope Flagg, Eugenia Karlson, Alex S, Jirat, Tim Curwick, Christy Huddleston, Eric Kitchen, Moritz Schmidt, Today I Found Out, Avi Yashchin, Chris Peters, Eric Knight, Jacob Ash, Simun Niclasen, Jan Schmid, Elliot Beter, Sandra Aft, SR Foxley, Ian Dundore, Daniel Baulig, Jason A Saslow, Robert Kunz, Jessica Wode, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Christian, Caleb Weeks, Jeffrey Thompson, James Craver, and Markus Persson
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In which John Green teaches you about the life and death of one of history's great explorers, Captain James Cook of the British Navy. He charted large swaths of the Pacific ocean, laid claim to Australia and New Zealand, and died a bizarre death in the Sandwich Islands, which are now called the Hawaiian Islands. Exactly how and why Captain Cook was killed in Hawaii is a long-running historical debate. John presents two interpretations of the event and talks about what the differing interpretations say about history. It turns out how the story is told depends on who is doing the storytelling, and people from different backgrounds can interpret events in very different ways. Also, there is a celebration and a mustache involved in this episode, so you definitely don't want to miss it.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Captain James Cook 0:33
An Open Letter to "The White Man's Burden" 2:44
Captain Cook's Controversial Death 3:40
Interpretations of Captain Cook's Death: Makahiki 4:19
Issues with the Ritual Death Story 5:19
How Cook Actually (Probably) Died 6:34
Why Did Cook's Ritual Death Myth Persist? 8:03
Credits 10:00

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Today on Crash Course Astronomy, Phil invites you to head outside and take a look at all the incredible things you can see with your naked eye.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction: Naked Eye Observations 00:00
Classifying Stars by Magnitude 2:08
Star Colors 2:24
Constellations 3:09
Names of Stars 4:34
Light Pollution 5:16
Why Do Stars Twinkle? 6:40
Naked-Eye Planets 7:07
The Sky's Motion 7:25
Which Stars Can We See? 9:34
Review 10:30
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer
--
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--

PHOTOS
http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1333a/
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:3_Solar_Int
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0206j/
http://www.spacetelescope.org/images/heic0720c/
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/3/36
http://hubblesite.org/newscent....er/archive/releases/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/D....elphinus#mediaviewer
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....corpius#mediaviewer/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C....ategory:Pisces_(cons
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....lpha_Cancri#mediavie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....LOBE_at_Night#mediav
http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mu....ltimedia/display.cfm
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA00104
http://www.esa.int/spaceinimag....es/Images/2007/02/Tr
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/jpeg/PIA04866.jpg
http://photojournal.jpl.nasa.gov/catalog/PIA06193
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Star_Trails
http://imgsrc.hubblesite.org/h....u/db/images/hs-2006-
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C....ircumpolar_star#medi