Hope this was worth the wait! So many people helped with this video: Prof John Sperry, Hank Green, Henry Reich, CGP Grey, Prof Poliakoff, my mum filmed for me in beautiful Stanley Park and Jen S helped with the fourth version of the script.

Prof John Sperry http://biologylabs.utah.edu/sperry/john.html
Hank Green (SciShow) http://www.youtube.com/user/scishow
Henry Reich (minutephysics) http://www.youtube.com/user/minutephysics
CGP Grey http://www.youtube.com/user/cgpgrey
Prof Poliakoff (Periodic Videos) http://www.youtube.com/user/periodicvideos

Also thanks to the Palais de la Decouverte - they helped me with the whole vacuum pump setup in Paris. No, I could not actually suck water up 10m - I did about 4m, but the vacuum pump was easily able to do it and I saw spontaneous boiling on all of our various trials. Footage from this may end up on 2Veritasium.

Trees create immense negative pressures of 10's of atmospheres by evaporating water from nanoscale pores, sucking water up 100m in a state where it should be boiling but can't because the perfect xylem tubes contain no air bubbles, just so that most of it can evaporate in the process of absorbing a couple molecules of carbon dioxide. Now I didn't mention the cohesion of water (that it sticks to itself well) but this is implicit in the description of negative pressure, strong surface tension etc.

Have you ever heard of a perpetual motion machine? More to the point, have you ever heard of why perpetual motion machines are impossible? One of the reasons is because of the first law of thermodynamics! In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini talks to us about thermodynamics and entropy. Also, we learn about isovolumetric, isobaric, isothermal, and adiabatic processes. It'll all make sense in a minute!

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Do you really know how big the universe is? There’s a data driven way to read the news: go to https://ground.news/veritasium to get 30% off the Vantage plan and see through sensationalized reporting.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV


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A huge thank you to Dr. Ashmeet Singh for his expert feedback on this video.


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References:
Fun video by RealLifeLore about the scale of the Universe - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Iy7NzjCmUf0&pp=ygUkcmVhbCBsaWZlIGxvcmUgc2NhbGUgb2YgdGhlIHVuaXZlcnNl
Moon Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/NASAMoon
Titan Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/Titan
Mercury Facts via NASA - https://ve42.co/Mercury
Why Pluto is no Longer a Planet, BBC News via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iIk29MnzZWA&pp=ygUYcGx1dG8gbm8gbG9uZ2VyIGEgcGxhbmV0
Pluto, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiPluto
Eris, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiEris
Brown, M. E., & Schaller, E. L. (2007). The mass of dwarf planet Eris. Science, 316(5831), 1585-1585. - https://ve42.co/Brown2007
Trans-Neptunian object, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiTNO
IAU 2006 General Assembly Press Release, via IAU - https://ve42.co/IAU2006
Solar System Moons via NASA - https://ve42.co/NASAMoons
Solar System Asteroids via NASA - https://ve42.co/Asteroids
Solar System, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiSolarSystem
How many stars are in the Universe via ESA - https://ve42.co/ESAStars
Catalog of Exoplanets via exoplanet - https://ve42.co/ExoplanetCatalog
Crowther, T. W., Glick, H. B., Covey, K. R., Bettigole, C., Maynard, D. S., Thomas, S. M., ... & Bradford, M. A. (2015). Mapping tree density at a global scale. Nature, 525(7568), 201-205. - https://ve42.co/Crowther2015
Galaxy, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/WikiGalaxy
Counting Galaxies with the Hubble Space Telescope via NASA - https://ve42.co/CountingGalaxies
Conselice, C. J., Wilkinson, A., Duncan, K., & Mortlock, A. (2016). The evolution of galaxy number density at z8 and its implications. The Astrophysical Journal, 830(2), 83. - https://ve42.co/Conselice2016
Sagan, C., & Druyan, A. (2011). Pale blue dot: A vision of the human future in space. Ballantine books.

Images & Video:
Clip of Titan’s Surface, NASA via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xn3-0a19sC8
Clips of Pluto Had it Coming, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5nqT7XrYRPc
Image of Solar System Objects - https://ve42.co/SolarSystemObjects


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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bill Linder, Blake Byers, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures


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Directed by Casper Mebius
Written by Casper Mebius and Derek Muller
Additional research & fact checking by Gregor Čavlović
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Ivy Tello and Alondra Vitae
Filmed by Derek Muller, Raquel Nuno and Zyan Treadwell
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius and Han Evans

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, StoryBlocks and by courtesy of NASA, NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/SDO, NASA JPL, NASA/JPL-Caltech NASA GSFC, NASA HQ, NASA's Scientific Visualization Studio, NCSA, A. Kritsuk, M. Norman

Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Peter Sheppard

Welcome to the first episode of Crash Course Astronomy. Your host for this intergalactic adventure is the Bad Astronomer himself, Phil Plait. We begin with answering a question: "What is astronomy?"

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
What is Astronomy? 3:00
Who Studies Astronomy? 3:50
Origins of Astronomy 5:27
Astrology vs Astronomy 6:19
Geocentrism 7:51
Revolutions in Astronomy 8:58
Astronomy Today 10:26
Review 11:29

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Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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Photos:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Earth_cutaw
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....arth%27s_magnetic_fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....eomagnetic_storm#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....aturn#mediaviewer/Fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....43_Ida#mediaviewer/F
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Comet_Hale_
http://solarviews.com/raw/comet/kuiper3.jpg
http://solarviews.com/cap/comet/kuiper3.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L....ist_of_nearest_brigh
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B....lack_hole#mediaviewe
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Messier_69_
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/0/0f
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/03/2
http://www.esa.int/spaceinimag....es/Images/2007/02/Tr
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....ndromeda_Galaxy#medi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....riangulum_Galaxy#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H....ubble_Space_Telescop
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/12/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/12/2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N....icolaus_Copernicus#m
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....ycho_Brahe#mediaview
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J....ohannes_Kepler#media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I....saac_Newton#mediavie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....alileo_Galilei#media
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/09/2

The merging of two neutron stars was detected by gravitational waves and then by telescopes in all parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. This is a historic detection as it demonstrates:
- the first gravitational waves detected from inspiraling neutron stars
- the first joint observation by gravitational wave and electromagnetic wave astronomy
- identification of a gamma ray burst in conjunction with merging neutron stars
- how gravitational waves and gamma rays can be used together to locate their source

All evidence so far indicates that the data support General Relativity.

Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
Tony Fadell, Donal Botkin, Curational, Jeff Straathof, Zach Mueller, Ron Neal, Nathan Hansen, Corvi

Support Veritasium on Patreon: http://ve42.co/patreon

Graphics from:
Jets and Debris from a Neutron Star Collision
This animation captures phenomena observed over the course of nine days following the neutron star merger known as GW170817. They include gravitational waves (pale arcs); a near-light-speed jet that produced gamma rays (magenta); expanding debris from a "kilonova" that produced ultraviolet (violet), optical and infrared (blue-white to red) emission; and, once the jet directed toward us expanded into our view from Earth, X-rays (blue).
Credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center/CI Lab

Virgo Helps Localize Gravitational-Wave Signals
Sky localizations of gravitational-wave signals detected by LIGO beginning in 2015 (GW150914, LVT151012, GW151226, GW170104), and, more recently, by the LIGO-Virgo network (GW170814, GW170817). After Virgo came online in August 2017, scientists were better able to localize the gravitational-wave signals. The background is an optical image of the Milky Way. The localizations of GW150914, LVT151012, and GW170104 wrap around the celestial sphere, so the sky map is shown with a translucent dome.
Credit: LIGO/Virgo/NASA/Leo Singer (Milky Way image: Axel Mellinger)

Variety of Gravitational Waves and a Chirp
The signal measured by LIGO and Virgo from the neutron star merger GW170817 is compared here to previously detected binary black hole mergers. All signals are shown starting at 30 Hertz, and the progression of GW170817 is shown in real time, accompanied by its conversion to audio heard at the end of the movie. GW170817 was observable for more than 30 times longer than any previous gravitational-wave signal.
Credit: LIGO/University of Oregon/Ben Farr

LIGO is funded by the NSF, and operated by Caltech and MIT, which conceived of LIGO and led the Initial and Advanced LIGO projects. Financial support for the Advanced LIGO project was led by the NSF with Germany (Max Planck Society), the U.K. (Science and Technology Facilities Council) and Australia (Australian Research Council) making significant commitments and contributions to the project.

More than 1,200 scientists and some 100 institutions from around the world participate in the effort through the LIGO Scientific Collaboration, which includes the GEO Collaboration and the Australian collaboration OzGrav. Additional partners are listed at http://ligo.org/partners.php

The Virgo collaboration consists of more than 280 physicists and engineers belonging to 20 different European research groups: six from Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS) in France; eight from the Istituto Nazionale di Fisica Nucleare (INFN) in Italy; two in the Netherlands with Nikhef; the MTA Wigner RCP in Hungary; the POLGRAW group in Poland; Spain with the University of Valencia; and the European Gravitational Observatory, EGO, the laboratory hosting the Virgo detector near Pisa in Italy, funded by CNRS, INFN, and Nikhef.

Today Hank explores artificial intelligence, including weak AI and strong AI, and the various ways that thinkers have tried to define strong AI including the Turing Test, and John Searle’s response to the Turing Test, the Chinese Room. Hank also tries to figure out one of the more personally daunting questions yet: is his brother John a robot?

Curious about AI? Check out this playlist from Crash Course Artificial Intelligence: https://youtube.com/playlist?l....ist=PL8dPuuaLjXtO65L

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All other images and video either public domain or via VideoBlocks, or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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How much information is there in Spanish vs English, you vs the world? Check out Audible: http://bit.ly/AudibleVe
Huge thanks to all the amazing people who made this possible:
Christina Ochoa - Spanish https://twitter.com/christina_ochoa
Vanessa Hill - Filming https://www.youtube.com/braincraftvideo
Henry Reich - Filming, cameo http://youtube.com/minutephysics
Cara Santa Maria - Set design http://carasantamaria.com
Michael Stevens - cameo http://youtube.com/vsauce
Crystal Dilworth - consultation https://twitter.com/PolycrystalhD

Thanks also to MinutePhysics for wardrobe and lending the use of the amazing "Things to do when it's really cold outside" video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j3Gs6tyiNX4

More on this theme to come in the main collaboration with Vsauce.

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse


Last week, we met the Presocratics: despite having by any reasonable standard invented science in Europe, these thinkers are lumped together today as simply “not Socrates.”
So who was this smarty pants? In this episode Hank talks to us about Socrates and his two important students, Plato and Aristotle.

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Eric Prestemon, Kathrin Benoit, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Divonne Holmes à Court, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, Indika Siriwardena, Robert Kunz, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, Evren Türkmenoğlu, Alexander Tamas, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, mark austin, Ruth Perez, Malcolm Callis, Ken Penttinen, Advait Shinde, Cody Carpenter, Annamaria Herrera, William McGraw, Bader AlGhamdi, Vaso, Melissa Briski, Joey Quek, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Alex S, Mayumi Maeda, Kathy & Tim Philip, Montather, Jirat, Eric Kitchen, Moritz Schmidt, Ian Dundore, Chris Peters, Sandra Aft, Steve Marshall
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Well, it wouldn't be too long after we started developing Ecology that we would try to control the environment. In some ways this was helpful and likely prevented a lot of people from starving. But, there have been a few downsides.


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Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Bob Doye, Jennifer Killen, Naman Goel, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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Today we're going to tell the story of a quiet revolution in the 1960s that shifted our entire understanding of how the Earth works. We currently believe that the Earth's broken outer shell rises from the mantle and folds back in - kind of like a dance of creative destruction and reconstruction - giving us our continents and oceans, mountains and valleys, volcanoes, and earthquakes. And it would take a group of scientists all over the world to get us this grand unifying theory of plate tectonics.

SOURCES
Petersen, et al 2011. Fundamentals of Physical Geography. Cengage
Christopherson, R.W. 2010. Elemental Geosystems. Prentice Hall. 6th edition
Strahler, A. 2011. Introducing Physical Geography. Wiley and Sons. 5th Edition
http://metrocosm.com/earth-19000bc-3000ad.html
https://dinosaurpictures.org/ancient-earth#750
https://earthsky.org/space/ear....th-as-seen-from-spac
https://oceanexplorer.noaa.gov..../explorations/lewis_
https://www.nationalgeographic.....org/encyclopedia/ri
ttps://www.ck12.org/earth-science/Oce....an-Ocean-Convergent-
https://www.reference.com/scie....nce/oceanic-oceanic-
http://www.geosci.usyd.edu.au/....users/prey/ACSGT/ERe

Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Michael M. Varughese, Ben Follows, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel A Stevens, Chris Routh, Evan Lawrence Henderson, Vincent, Emilee Murphy, Michael Wang, Jordan willis, Krystle Young, Michael Dowling, Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Rachel Creager, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Divonne Holmes à Court, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Jason Rostoker, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, ThatAmericanClare, Rizwan Kassim, Sam Ferguson, Alex Hackman, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Katie Dean, TheDaemonCatJr, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Matthew, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks
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#CrashCourse #Geography #Tectonics

Well, it wouldn't be too long after we started developing Ecology that we would try to control the environment. In some ways this was helpful and likely prevented a lot of people from starving. But, there have been a few downsides.


***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Bob Doye, Jennifer Killen, Naman Goel, Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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In which John Green teaches you about the changes wrought by contact between the Old World and the New. John does this by exploring the totally awesome history book "The Columbian Exchange" by Alfred Crosby, Jr. After Columbus "discovered" the Americas, European conquerors, traders, and settlers brought all manner of changes to the formerly isolated continents. Disease and invasive plant and animal species remade the New World, usually in negative ways. While native people, plants, and animals were being displaced in the Americas, the rest of the world was benefitting from American imports, especially foods like maize, tomatoes, potatoes, pineapple, blueberries, sweet potatoes, and manioc. Was the Columbian Exchange a net positive? It's debatable. So debate.

The Columbian Exchange, by Alfred Crosby, Jr: https://bit.ly/3M3ZtbG

Chapters:
Introduction: The Columbian Exchange 00:00
Diseases of the Columbian Exchange 1:14
John Green Does the Cinnamon Challenge (Ew) 4:21
An Open Letter to Tobacco 5:09
Animals of the Columbian Exchange 5:51
Plants of the Columbian Exchange 7:27
People of the Columbian Exchange 9:53
Credits 11:36

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When we talk about the American Revolution and Revolutionary War, the discussion often involves lofty ideals like liberty, freedom, and justice. The Declaration of Independence even opens with the idea that "all men are created equal." But it turns out, the war wasn't being fought on behalf of "all men." The war was mainly about freedom for white colonists, and liberty, justice, and the pursuit of happiness didn't apply to the Black people living in the British colonies. During the war, Black people took up arms on both sides of the conflict, and today we're going to learn how and why they participated.

Clint's book, How the Word is Passed is available now! https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

Sources and References

Sylvia R. Frey, Water From the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, debtors, slaves, and the making of the American Revolution in Virginia (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1998).
Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006).
Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961).


Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
Download here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Sources and References

-Sylvia R. Frey, Water From the Rock: Black Resistance in a Revolutionary Age (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991).
-Woody Holton, Forced Founders: Indians, debtors, slaves, and the making of the American Revolution in Virginia (Chapel Hill: UNC Press, 1998).
-Cassandra Pybus, Epic Journeys of Freedom: Runaway Slaves of the American Revolution and Their Global Quest for Liberty (Boston: Beacon Press, 2006).
-Benjamin Quarles, The Negro in the American Revolution (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1961).



Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Michael M. Varughese, Ben Follows, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel A Stevens, Chris Routh, Evan Lawrence Henderson, Vincent, Emilee Murphy, Michael Wang, Jordan willis, Krystle Young, Michael Dowling, Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Rachel Creager, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Divonne Holmes à Court, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Jason Rostoker, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, ThatAmericanClare, Rizwan Kassim, Sam Ferguson, Alex Hackman, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Katie Dean, TheDaemonCatJr, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Matthew, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks
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#crashcourse #blackhistory #americanrevolution

The Moon might be much bigger than you think it is.

Moon May! One video about cool moon stuff every Mo(o)nday in May. Next: Mars' strange Moons!

Videos, explaining things. Like evolution, time, space, global energy or our existence in this strange universe.
We are a team of designers, journalists and musicians who want to make science look beautiful. Because it is beautiful.

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How big is the moon really?

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Sources & further reading:
https://sites.google.com/view/sources-vaping/

Vaping is marketed as the “safe” alternative to smoking, but it’s far from being harmless. Unregulated ingredients, hidden toxins, and extreme nicotine levels mean we’re conducting
a massive experiment on ourselves. Let’s dive into what we know – and what we don’t know, yet.


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You may have noticed that the internet is terrible at religious discourse. Well, this is not a new phenomenon. In the early 16th century, the Roman Catholic church dominated Christianity in Europe, and the institution was starting to show some cracks. Tensions mounted and protests grew, and eventually, the Protestant Reformation happened. Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the church door in Wittenberg, but the Reformation doesn't exactly begin with Luther, and it certainly doesn't end with him. Today, we're looking at how and why the Catholic church in Europe split, first into two sects, and eventually into a LOT of sects.

#crashcourse #europeanhistory #history

Sources:
Hunt, Lynn et al. Making of the West: Peoples and Cultures, 6th ed. (Boston: Bedford St Martins, 2019 ch. 14.
Kelley, Donald R. Beginning of Ideology: Consciousness and Society in the French Reformation. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1981) ch. 1.
Smith, Bonnie G. Women in World History since 1450 (London: Bloomsbury, 2019) ch. 3.

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Sheep Trick or Treat
by Nancy E. Shaw
Illustrated by Margot Apple
Read by Let's Read Stories

What will happen when the sheep go trick-or-treating? Could there be wolves lurking in the woods, hoping to waylay them as they return home with their bags full of goodies? In crisp verse and whimsically eerie pictures, Nancy Shaw and Margot Apple tell the lively story of a remarkable Halloween adventure. Simple sentences, rhyming text, and a humorous tone make this the perfect treat for beginning readers. Fans of this adventuresome flock of sheep will not want to miss this Halloween treat.

Click here to purchase Sheep Trick or Treat: https://www.amazon.com/Sheep-T....rick-Treat-Nancy-Sha

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