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For centuries, diamonds were one of the most mysterious materials on Earth. They were beautiful, indestructible, and completely unexplained. Today, we’re exploring how scientists unlocked their secrets, and how one lab recreates the extreme conditions in Earth's mantle to make diamonds… out of dead people.

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Duh, except for the sky… and the ocean…
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Among living things, the color blue is oddly rare. Blue rocks, blue sky, blue water, sure. But blue animals? They are few and far between. And the ones that do make blue? They make it in some very strange and special ways compared to other colors. In this video, we'll look at some very cool butterflies to help us learn how living things make blue, and why this beautiful hue is so rare in nature.

SPECIAL THANKS:
Smithsonian Institution - National Museum of Natural History
Bob Robbins, Ph.D. - Curator of Lepidoptera
Juan Pablo Hurtado Padilla - Microscope Educator

Richard Prum, Ph.D. - Yale University
Vinothan Manoharan, Ph.D. - Harvard University

SOURCES:

Bagnara, J. T., Fernandez, P. J., & Fujii, R. (2007). On the blue coloration of vertebrates. Pigment Cell & Melanoma Research, 20(1), 14-26.

Cuthill, I. C., Allen, W. L., Arbuckle, K., Caspers, B., Chaplin, G., Hauber, M. E., ... & Mappes, J. (2017). The biology of color. Science, 357(6350), eaan0221.

Kinoshita, S., Yoshioka, S., & Miyazaki, J. (2008). Physics of structural colors. Reports on Progress in Physics, 71(7), 076401.

Kinoshita, S. (2008). Structural colors in the realm of nature. World Scientific.

Prum, R. O., Quinn, T., & Torres, R. H. (2006). Anatomically diverse butterfly scales all produce structural colours by coherent scattering. Journal of Experimental Biology, 209(4), 748-765.

Vukusic, P., & Sambles, J. R. (2003). Photonic structures in biology. Nature, 424(6950), 852-855.

Vukusic, P., Sambles, J. R., Lawrence, C. R., & Wootton, R. J. (1999). Quantified interference and diffraction in single Morpho butterfly scales. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 266(1427), 1403-1411.



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It's Okay To Be Smart is hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.
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It never gets dark anymore. Not REALLY dark, anyway. Not like it used to. Light pollution is not only making it more difficult to see the night sky, but it's also affecting our health. For the past century and a half, since the dawn of electric light, we’ve been losing our connection to the night. We need artificial light for modern society, of course. The problem is, we need darkness for our health, and for the health of wildlife and ecosystems, and we’re not getting enough of it. I traveled to McDonald Observatory in far west Texas, one of the darkest places in North America, to learn what people are doing in order to preserve dark skies, and to see truly dark skies for myself (and so I could show them to you!). This video features time lapse night sky images that I’ve been collecting for the past few years, and I hope they make you feel something special. Turn out the lights, keep looking up, and don’t be afraid of the dark.
#lightpollution #darkskies #astronomy

SOURCES/MORE INFO: https://sites.google.com/view/....light-pollution-sour

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Dorothy went over one. LeVar Burton read to us under one. In a song, Kermit the Frog connected us to one. Even Mork's suspenders were made of them.

Our culture, and our skies, are full of rainbows, but do you know how they form? Do we all see the same rainbow? Could cyborg-enhanced mantis shrimp eyes someday see a bigger rainbow?

The answer to all these questions involves a little physics, and the number 42.

Written and hosted by Joe Hanson
Produced by Painted On Productions (http://www.paintedon.com/)

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Our lizard friend the Gila monster probably has no idea that a chemical in its spit inspired one of the most important medical advancements of the 21st century. But this story is really about something bigger. Something deeper, beneath the surface. About why we do science in the first place. And about what kind of questions are the best ones for scientists to ask.

References: https://sites.google.com/view/....useless-knowledge-re

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What do raindrops look like? Exactly how we drew them as kids, right? Wrong! Teardrop-shaped rain is physically impossible. This week I went inside a vertical wind tunnel to bring you the true shape of rain.

Special thanks to iFly Indoor Skydiving in Austin, TX! Learn more about their STEM field trips: https://www.iflyworld.com/prog....rams/stem-field-trip

REFERENCES:

Dr. Scot Martin, Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry at Harvard University https://www.seas.harvard.edu/directory/smartin

Terminal Velocity of Raindrops Aloft
https://journals.ametsoc.org/d....oi/10.1175/1520-0450

The Terminal Velocity of Fall for Water Droplets in Stagnant Air
https://journals.ametsoc.org/d....oi/pdf/10.1175/1520-

Single-Drop Fragmentation Determines Size Distribution of Raindrops
https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys1340



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It’s Okay To Be Smart is hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.
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Visit https://vote.gov/ to learn how and when to register and vote.
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In this episode we're joined by a leading political scientist to help us figure out the complex psychological and social factors that motivate us to vote… or not to. We discuss how and why our decision whether or not to vote might not be a rational one. And why it is important to understand that. And why it’s important to vote!

Visit Vote.gov to learn how and when to register and vote.

References and further reading: https://sites.google.com/view/....why-do-we-vote-refer

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Building a perfect igloo takes cool science!
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If you ever find yourself stranded in the snowy Arctic (or bored in Minecraft), you’re gonna need to know how to build an igloo. But how can building a house made of ice keep you warm? The science behind building an igloo is the same reason that otters and reindeer don't freeze to death!

LEARN MORE:

There really ARE 50 Eskimo words for snow: http://wapo.st/2iwThf3

PBS Idea Channel - An Infinite Number of Words for Snow https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CX6i2M4AoZw

Why there’s no such thing as cold: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Akd7MMRKDwc

How early humans settled the Arctic: https://uaf.edu/files/olli/Den....bigh-Slides_lowres.p

How to build a scientifically perfect igloo: http://www.popsci.com/how-to-build-an-igloo


It’s Okay To Be Smart is hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.

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Across life on Earth, blood comes in red, blue, green, purple, even clear. But why? And what makes your blood different from mine? This video will teach you everything you need to know about the strange world of blood—what it does, why it varies, and why we can’t live without it.

References: https://sites.google.com/view/....be-smart-blood-types

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It sounds like such an incredible fact. “Our own cells are outnumbered by our microbes 10 to 1!” I don’t remember where I first heard it. But I read it in science papers and articles by journalists, so I believed it without question. I even made one of my first videos based on this fact. Problem is, this fact is not true. So how did it remain firmly planted in our common knowledge for almost four decades without any scientific scrutiny? And how can you prepare yourself to not be fooled by other scientific urban legends? I look at a few of the most famous incorrect factoids in science, and give a few suggestions for how to make our common knowledge more correct.

References: https://sites.google.com/view/....7-scientific-urban-l

Please do not watch this old video, it is wrong and my hair is awful: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4BZME8H7-KU


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I’ve explained a lot of weird bodily functions on this show but there’s one that we haven’t covered that’s always confused me: Tickling. What are you for, tickling? What’s the point of you? Why do you exist? Why do you make us laugh even though we hate you? Let’s dig into our evolutionary past to try and find an answer.

References:

Laughing, tickling, and speech http://untiredwithloving.org/dhahak.pdf
Pathogenic laughter https://n.neurology.org/content/64/12/2154.short
Tickling review http://charris.ucsd.edu/articl....es/Harris_EHB2012.pd
Darwin-Hecker http://charris.ucsd.edu/articles/Harris&Christenfeld_CE1997.pdf
Early thoughts https://www.jstor.org/stable/1....411471?seq=1#page_sc
Neural correlates of laughter https://academic.oup.com/cerco....r/article/23/6/1280/
Neural correlates of laughter https://academic.oup.com/brain..../article/126/10/2121 Experience of pleasure https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/6877978
Tickling and laughter https://www.sciencedirect.com/....science/article/pii/
Ticklish rats https://science.sciencemag.org..../content/354/6313/75
Social laughter and pain https://royalsocietypublishing.....org/doi/full/10.109


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Several jokes were harmed in the making of this video
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Laughing is a universal human behavior, one that transcends borders of language and culture. But it's also REALLY WEIRD. Why do we do it? The answer has less to do with humor than you might think
Learn more:
"Laughter: A Scientific Investigation" by Robert Provine http://amzn.to/1fzZQLy

"Ha! The Science of When We Laugh and Why" by Scott Weems http://amzn.to/1etLLyv



Have an idea for an episode or an amazing science question you want answered? Leave a comment or check us out at the links below!
Follow on Twitter: http://twitter.com/okaytobesmart
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It's Okay To Be Smart is written and hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.DFollow me on Twitter: @jtotheizzoe
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Produced by PBS Digital Studios: http://www.youtube.com/user/pbsdigitalstudios

Joe Hanson - Creator/Host/Writer
Joe Nicolosi - Director
Amanda Fox - Producer, Spotzen IncKate Eads - Producer
Andrew Matthews - Editing/Motion Graphics/Animation
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Theme music: "Ouroboros" by Kevin MacLeod

Other music via APM
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More videos:
Why Does February Have 28 Days? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AgKaHTh-_Gs
Why Vaccines Work https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3aNhzLUL2ys
Why Are Some People Left-Handed? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NPvMUpcxPSA
Where Does the Smell of Rain Come From? https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lGcE5x8s0B8

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Are humans nature’s greatest architects? When we look elsewhere in nature, we find some pretty amazing animal architects. Species like ants, termites, prairie dogs, birds, and more have engineered some incredible structures. This week we look at how a few of these species have mastered physics to install air conditioning in their homes!

Special thanks to Dianna Cowern AKA Physics Girl for helping us get the physics right in this video! https://www.youtube.com/user/physicswoman

-----------
REFERENCES:

Gould, James L., and Carol Grant Gould. Animal architects: building and the evolution of intelligence. Basic Books (AZ), 2007.

Hansell, M. (2007). Built by animals: the natural history of animal architecture. OUP Oxford.

Cosarinsky, M. I., & Roces, F. (2012). The construction of turrets for nest ventilation in the grass-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri: import and assembly of building materials. Journal of Insect Behavior, 25(3), 222-241.

Kleineidam, C., Ernst, R., & Roces, F. (2001). Wind-induced ventilation of the giant nests of the leaf-cutting ant Atta vollenweideri. Naturwissenschaften, 88(7), 301-305.

King, H., Ocko, S., & Mahadevan, L. (2015). Termite mounds harness diurnal temperature oscillations for ventilation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112(37), 11589-11593.

Vogel, S., Ellington, C. P., & Kilgore, D. L. (1973). Wind-induced ventilation of the burrow of the prairie-dog, Cynomys ludovicianus. Journal of Comparative Physiology A: Neuroethology, Sensory, Neural, and Behavioral Physiology, 85(1), 1-14.

Bahadori, M. M. (1978). Passive cooling systems in Iranian architecture. Sci. Am.;(United States), 238(2).

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It’s Okay To Be Smart is hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.
Director: Joe Nicolosi
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Producer: Stephanie Noone and Amanda Fox

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You’ve probably heard of Ben Franklin and the kite. But do you know the TRUE story of how his famous experiment changed the world? Here’s the tale of how one person’s quest for scientific knowledge altered the direction of history.

References:

Dray, Philip. “Stealing God's Thunder: Benjamin Franklin's Lightning Rod and the Invention of America.” Random House, 2005.

Franklin, Benjamin. “Experiments and observations on electricity, made at Philadelphia in America” 1769. https://archive.org/details/ex....perimentsobser00fran

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How many times do you look in a mirror every day? Have you ever stopped to wonder how they actually work? Mirrors do strange things to our world, seemingly flipping everything so that what was right is left and what was left is right. But what if I told you that mirrors don’t actually flip the world left to right? The real magic of mirrors is far stranger and more interesting, as you’re about to learn.

Inspired by:
Gardner, Martin - The New Ambidextrous Universe: Symmetry and Asymmetry from Mirror Reflections to Superstrings

Check out It's Lit: Unabridged, a new podcast from PBS:
iTunes: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/....podcast/its-lit-unab
Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/show/....4XOCT3jhB12mYcbA15h7

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Earth’s climate is changing in a big way, and it’s because there's more carbon dioxide in the atmosphere than at any point in our species’ history. But Earth’s climate has changed before. How do we know that this time we’re the cause? We know thanks to tiny bubbles of ancient atmosphere trapped in ice. #climatechange #globalwarming

Thanks to Dr. Jeff Severinghaus and the Scripps Institution of Oceanography

References: https://sites.google.com/view/....ice-cores-climate-ch

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This video is perfect for adults orchids.
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Many creatures wear disguises in order to keep safe from predators, but there are some that dress to kill. Orchid mantises are one of nature’s most awesome examples of aggressive mimicry. These killer insects are almost indistinguishable from orchids! Scientists recently learned that their disguise doesn’t work quite how we thought it did.

Special thanks to YouTuber Fruchtpudding for letting us use their awesome orchid mantis hunting footage! https://www.youtube.com/user/Fruchtpudding

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READ MORE:

O’Hanlon, J. C. (2016). Orchid mantis. Current Biology, 26(4), R145-R146.

O’Hanlon, J. C., Holwell, G. I., & Herberstein, M. E. (2013). Pollinator deception in the orchid mantis. The American Naturalist, 183(1), 126-132.

O’Hanlon, J. C., Herberstein, M. E., & Holwell, G. I. (2014). Habitat selection in a deceptive predator: maximizing resource availability and signal efficacy. Behavioral Ecology, 26(1), 194-199.

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It’s Okay To Be Smart is hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.
Director: Joe Nicolosi
Writer: Sarah Keartes
Producer/editor/animator: Andrew Matthews
Producer: Stephanie Noone and Amanda Fox

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Over 200 years ago, scientists were looking at sunlight through a prism when they noticed that part of the rainbow was missing. There were dark lines where there should have been colors. Since then, scientists have unlocked the secrets encoded in these lines, using it to uncover mind-boggling facts about the fundamental nature of our universe and about worlds light-years away.

Want to build your own DIY spectrometer? Mine is a modified version of this one from @exploratorium https://www.exploratorium.edu/....snacks/cd-spectrosco
And here's what you'll need to make one: https://amzn.to/3sbhr7C

References: https://sites.google.com/view/....whysomeoftherainbowi

0:00 Fraunhofer's mystery of missing colors
0:54 Playing with fire
2:11 Puzzle pieces and color codes
3:30 Electrons do the strangest things
5:40 How to make a rainbow analyzer
8:00 Using rainbows to understand the universe
9:57 Life beyond Earth
10:57 Final thoughts

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Vintage arcade footage courtesy of: http://patrickscottpatterson.com/

Special thanks to Dreamhack Austin 2016: http://dreamhackaustin.com/

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References:
Thompson, Joseph J., Mark R. Blair, and Andrew J. Henrey. "Over the hill at 24: persistent age-related cognitive-motor decline in reaction times in an ecologically valid video game task begins in early adulthood." PloS one 9.4 (2014): e94215.

Thompson, Joseph J., et al. "Video game telemetry as a critical tool in the study of complex skill learning." PloS one 8.9 (2013): e75129.

Lewis, Joshua M., Patrick Trinh, and David Kirsh. "A corpus analysis of strategy video game play in starcraft: Brood war." Proceedings of the 33rd annual conference of the cognitive science society. 2011.

ESA Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry 2016 http://essentialfacts.theesa.com/

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It’s Okay To Be Smart is written and hosted by Joe Hanson, Ph.D.
Follow me on Twitter: @jtotheizzoe
Produced by PBS Digital Studios: http://www.youtube.com/user/pbsdigitalstudios

Music via APM
Stock images from SciencePhoto http://www.sciencephoto.com/ and Shutterstock http://www.shutterstock.com
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Check out Far Out on @pbsterra : https://youtu.be/jpUjze3v_6c
Check out Why Am I Like This? on @pbsterra : https://youtu.be/eWzBNfBnFys

What's the tallest mountain on Earth? It might seem like an easy question to answer, but in reality it's one that brings up more NEW questions than answers. It turns out that the way we measure mountains rests on a lot of approximations, assumptions, and averages. And when you dig into those, there's several contenders for the tallest mountain, each with their own good case for the title. So, which mountain do YOU think should take the throne?

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