Today we start our unit on language with a discussion of meaning and how we assign and understand meaning. We’ll cover sense and reference, beetles in boxes, and language games.

We’re also getting into the meaning-making game ourselves: bananas are now chom-choms. Pass it on.

--

Image Credits:
Chutes & Ladders by Ben Hussman https://www.flickr.com/photos/....benhusmann/312009594
Wizard School © DFTBA Games

All other images and video via ThinkStock or VideoBlocks
either public domain or via VideoBlocks, or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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What is a trade deficit? Well, it all has to do with imports and exports and, well, trade. This week Jacob and Adriene walk you through the basics of imports, exports, and exchange. So, you remember the specialization and trade thing, right? So, that leads to imports and exports. Economically, in the aggregate, this is usually a good thing. Globalization and free trade do tend to increase overall wealth. But not everybody wins.

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--

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In this episode of Crash Course Film History, we talk about the development of the language of films by filmmakers like Edwin S. Porter and his films; Life of an American Fireman and The Great Train Robbery.


Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Want to know more about Craig?
https://www.youtube.com/user/wheezywaiter

The Latest from PBS Digital Studios: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PL1mtdjDVOoO

***

Images and Video Used are in the Public Domain and from the Library of Congress.

***

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Today Hank kicks off our look around MISSION CONTROL: the nervous system.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Chapters:
Introduction: Hank's Morning Routine 00:00
Nervous System Functions: Sensory Input, Integration, and Motor Output 1:17
Organization of Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems 2:16
Neurons & Glial Cells 3:42
Central Nervous System Glial Cells: Astrocytes, Microglial, Ependymal, and Oligodendrocytes 4:17
Peripheral Nervous System Glial Cells: Satellite and Schwann 4:56
Cool Neuron Facts! 5:15
Neuron Structure 6:20
Classifying Neuron Structures: Multipolar, Bipolar, and Unipolar 7:00
Classifying Neuron Functionality: Sensory (Afferent), Motor (Efferent), Interneurons (Association) 7:47
Review 9:42
Credits 10:14

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Adriene and Jacob teach you all about markets. So, in free market(ish) economies like the United States and most of the world, markets are a big deal. Markets work to produce the stuff that consumers want, and that society needs. Today we'll talk about productive and allocative efficiency, skinny jeans, price signals, and more in this information-dense installment of Crash Course.

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Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks

--

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How does our knowledge grow? It turns out there are some different ideas about that. Schemas, Four-Stage Theory of Cognitive Development, and Vygotsky's Theory of Scaffolding all play different roles but the basic idea is that children think about things very differently than adults. Hank explains in today's episode of Crash Course Psychology.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: Cognitive Development 00:00
Maturation 1:23
Jean Piaget's Theory of Cognitive Development 1:45
Schemas 2:39
Assimilation & Accommodation 3:03
Sensorimotor Stage of Cognitive Development 3:37
Preoperational Stage of Cognitive Development 4:37
Concrete Operational Stage of Cognitive Development 6:40
Formal Operational Stage of Cognitive Development 7:06
Reception of Piaget's Four-Step Model 7:20
Vygotsky's Theory of Scaffolding 7:48
Review & Credits 8:58
--
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We continue our look at philosophical reasoning by introducing two more types: induction and abduction. Hank explains their strengths and weaknesses, as well as counterarguments and the Socratic method.

--

Images and video via VideoBlocks or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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In the 17th century, as the British colonies in the Americas were getting established in places like Jamestown, VA, the system of chattel slavery was also developing. Today, we'll learn about the role that slavery played in early American economy and how slavery became a legally accepted practice in the first place, and how it contributed to the colony’s early economic success. We'll look at the experiences of Anthony Johnson and John Punch to see how legal precedents that greatly influenced the development of slavery were set.

Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
Download here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Clint's book, How the Word is Passed: https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Laura Damon, Andrei Krishkevich, Sam Ferguson, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Brian Thomas Gossett, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks

Sources and References
"Africans in Early North America, 1619-1726." African American Lives: the Struggle for Freedom, by Clayborne Carson et al., Pearson Longman, 2005

Edmund S. Morgan, American Slavery, American Freedom (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1975)

Ira Berlin, Many Thousands Gone: The First Two Centuries of Slavery in North America (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998).

Daina Ramey Berry and Kali Nicole Gross, A Black Women’s History of the United States (Boston: Beacon Press, 2020).

Alejandro de la Fuente and Ariela J. Gross, Becoming Free, Becoming Black: Race, Freedom, and Law in Cuba, Virginia, and Louisiana (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2020)

Winthrop D. Jordan, White Over Black: American Attitudes toward the Negro 1550-1812 (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1968)
__

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#crashcourse #history #slavery

Hank describes mitosis and cytokinesis - the series of processes our cells go through to divide into two identical copies.

References:
http://www.eurekalert.org/pub_....releases/2012-02/wif
http://faculty.clintoncc.suny.....edu/faculty/michael.
http://www.genome.gov/Images/p....ress_photos/highres/
http://www.nature.com/nrm/jour....nal/v2/n1/fig_tab/nr
https://www.genome.gov/Glossary/index.cfm?p=viewimage&id=33
http://www.sci.sdsu.edu/multim....edia/mitosis/mitosis

Table of Contents
1. Mitosis 0:24
2. Interphase 3:27
a) Chromatin 3:37
b) Centrosomes 3:52
3) Prophase 4:14
a) Chromosomes 4:18
b) Chromatid 4:31
c) Microtubules 5:07
4) Metaphase 5:22
a) Motor Proteins 5:36
5) Biolography 6:13
6) Anaphase 9:00
7) Telophase 9:15
8) Cleavage 9:25
9) Cytokinesis 9:36

This video contains the following sounds from Freesound.org:
"Swishes.wav" by Pogotron
"Opening Scotch Whisky.mp3" by Percy Duke

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We’ve covered a lot of incredible stuff, but this week we’re talking about the weirdest objects in space: BLACK HOLES. Stellar-mass black holes form when a very massive star dies, and its core collapses. The core has to be more than about 2.8 times the Sun’s mass to form a black hole. Black holes come in different sizes, but for all of them, the escape velocity is greater than the speed of light, so nothing can escape, not matter or light. They don’t wander the Universe gobbling everything down around them; their gravity is only really intense very close to them. Tides near a stellar mass black hole will spaghettify you, and time slows down when you get near a black hole — not that this helps much if you’re falling in.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
How Black Holes Are Formed 1:03
Misconceptions About Black Holes 3:05
Stellar Mass Black Holes 5:03
Spaghettification 5:50
Black Holes Warp Space-Time 8:00
Review 11:07
--

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
White Dwarf Pulses Like a Pulsar http://www.nasa.gov/centers/go....ddard/news/topstory/ [credit: NASA, Casey Reed]
Swift Reveals New Phenomenon in a Neutron Star http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/swift/bursts/new [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Black Holes - Monsters in Space https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/....File:Black_Holes_-_M [credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech, Wikimedia Commons]
What if the Sun became a black hole? (artist's impression) http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hubblecast43g [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser)]
Black Hole Animation http://chandra.harvard.edu/pho....to/2003/0203long/ani [credit: NASA/SAO/CXC/D.Berry]
Star Destroyer http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: Space Telescope Science Institute (STScI) and NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Black hole deforms space http://www.spacetelescope.org/....videos/hst15_blackho [credit: ESA/Hubble (M. Kornmesser & L. L. Christensen)]
Black hole close-up (artist's impression) http://www.spacetelescope.org/videos/heic0211c/ [credit: European Space Agency, NASA and Felix Mirabel (the French Atomic Energy Commission & the Institute for Astronomy and Space Physics/Conicet of Argentina)]

In which John Green teaches you about Nationalism. Nationalism was everywhere in the 19th century, as people all over the world carved new nation-states out of old empires. Nationalist leaders changed the way people thought of themselves and the places they lived by reinventing education, military service, and the relationship between government and governed. In Japan, the traditional feudal society underwent a long transformation over the course of about 300 years to become a modern nation-state. John follows the course of Japanese history from the emergence of the Tokugawa Shogunate to the Meiji Restoration and covers Nationalism in many other countries along the way. All this, plus a special guest appearance, plus the return of an old friend on an extra-special episode of Crash Course.

Chapters:
Introduction: Nationalism 00:00
Nationalism Around the World 0:49
The Modern Nation-State 1:52
The Tokugawa Bakufu of Japan 4:59
The Meiji Era and Japanese Nationalism 7:43
An Open Letter to Public Education 9:19
The Dark Side of Nationalism 10:28
Credits 11:18

Resources:
A Modern History of Japan by Andrew Gordon https://bit.ly/3Ocfxu0
Giving Up the Gun by Noel Perrin https://bit.ly/37JFQqA

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Hank teaches us why water is one of the most fascinating and important substances in the universe.

Review:
Re-watch = 00:00
Introduction = 00:42
Molecular structure & hydrogen bonds = 01:38
Cohesion & surface tension = 02:46
Adhesion = 03:31
Hydrophilic substances = 04:42
Hydrophobic substances = 05:14
Henry Cavendish = 05:49
Ice Density = 07:45
Heat Capacity = 09:10

Citations:
http://www.extension.umn.edu/d....istribution/youthdev
http://www.uni.edu/~iowawet/H2OProperties.html
http://www.hometrainingtools.c....om/properties-water-
http://science.howstuffworks.c....om/environmental/ear
http://www.robinsonlibrary.com..../science/chemistry/b
http://chemistry.mtu.edu/~pcha....rles/SCIHISTORY/Henr
http://www.nndb.com/people/030/000083778/
http://www.notablebiographies.....com/Ca-Ch/Cavendish-

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Language is complicated, especially in organic chemistry. This episode of Crash Course Organic Chemistry is all about nomenclature. We'll dive into IUPAC systematic naming of organic molecules, and get to practice with the help of three trusty steps!

Episode Sources:
IUPAC Organic Chemistry Nomenclature for organic compounds, https://www.acdlabs.com/iupac/nomenclature/

Series Sources:
Brown, W. H., Iverson, B. L., Ansyln, E. V., Foote, C., Organic Chemistry; 8th ed.; Cengage Learning, Boston, 2018.
Bruice, P. Y., Organic Chemistry, 7th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc., United States, 2014.
Clayden, J., Greeves, N., Warren., S., Organic Chemistry, 2nd ed.; Oxford University Press, New York, 2012.
Jones Jr., M.; Fleming, S. A., Organic Chemistry, 5th ed.; W. W. Norton & Company, New York, 2014.
Klein., D., Organic Chemistry; 1st ed.; John Wiley & Sons, United States, 2012.
Louden M., Organic Chemistry; 5th ed.; Roberts and Company Publishers, Colorado, 2009.
McMurry, J., Organic Chemistry, 9th ed.; Cengage Learning, Boston, 2016.
Smith, J. G., Organic chemistry; 6th ed.; McGraw-Hill Education, New York, 2020.
Wade., L. G., Organic Chemistry; 8th ed.; Pearson Education, Inc., United States, 2013.

***
Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Eric Prestemon, Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Zhu Junrong, William McGraw, Siobhan Sabino, Jason Saslow, Jennifer Killen, Matija Hrzenjak, Jon& Jennifer Smith, David Noe, Jonathan Zbikowski, Shawn Arnold, Trevin Beattie, Matthew Curls, Rachel Bright, Khaled El Shalakany, Ian Dundore, Kenneth F Penttinen, Eric Koslow, Timothy J Kwist, Indika Siriwardena, Caleb Weeks, Haixiang Liu, Nathan Taylor, Andrei Krishkevich, Sam Ferguson, Brian Thomas Gossett, SR Foxley, Tom Trval, Justin Zingsheim, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Jessica Wode, Nathan Catchings, Yasenia Cruz, christopher crowell
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In which John Green teaches you about the Mughal Empire, which ruled large swaths of the Indian Sub-Continent from 1526 to (technically) 1857. While John teaches you about this long-lived Muslim empire, he'll also look at the idea of historical reputation and how we view people from history. Namely, he'll look at the reputations of Mughal emperors Akbar I and Aurangzeb. Traditionally, Akbar I is considered the emperor that made the Mughal Empire great, and Aurangzeb gets the blame for running the whole thing into the ground and setting it up for decline. Is that really how it was, though? It turns out, it's complicated.

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In which John Green examines the French Revolution, and gets into how and why it differed from the American Revolution. Was it the serial authoritarian regimes? The guillotine? The Reign of Terror? All of this and more contributed to the French Revolution not being quite as revolutionary as it could have been. France endured multiple constitutions, the heads of heads of state literally rolled, and then they ended up with a megalomaniacal little emperor by the name of Napoleon. But how did all of this change the world, and how did it lead to other, more successful revolutions around the world? Watch this video and find out. Spoiler alert: Marie Antoinette never said, "Let them eat cake." Sorry.

Chapters:
Introduction: The French Revolution 00:00
The French Declare Bankruptcy 0:41
Ancien Régime, Estates General, and the National Assembly 2:05
Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen 3:16
Louis XVI, Marie Antionette, and the Women's March 4:00
The Jacobins 4:43
Austria and Prussia Intervene 5:35
An Open Letter to the Guillotine 6:48
Guillotines Galore 7:35
Napoleon Bonaparte 8:23
How Revolutionary was the French Revolution? 9:44
Credits 11:22

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Now that we’re done with the planets, asteroid belt, and comets, we’re heading to the outskirts of the solar system. Out past Neptune are vast reservoirs of icy bodies that can become comets if they get poked into the inner solar system. The Kuiper Belt is a donut shape aligned with the plane of the solar system; the scattered disk is more eccentric and is the source of short-period comets, and the Oort Cloud which surrounds the solar system out to great distances is the source of long-period comets. These bodies all probably formed closer to the Sun and got flung out to the solar system’s suburbs by gravitational interactions with the outer planets.

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

Chapters:
Introduction: Where Do Comets Come From? 00:00
Kuiper Belt, Scattered Disk, and Oort Cloud 2:52
Long-Period Comets come from the Oort Cloud 4:03
Short-Period Comets come from the Scattered Disk 4:27
Pluto, Plutinos, and other Kuiper Belt Objects 4:47
Oort Cloud Objects 8:25
Review 10:38
--

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Support CrashCourse on Patreon: http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
HD Long Exposure Star Timelapse https://vimeo.com/34172172 [credit: Jeffrey Beach, Beachfront B-Roll]
Fine Structure in the Comet’s Jets http://blogs.esa.int/rosetta/2....015/01/16/fine-struc http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P....rotoplanetary_disk#m [credit: ESA/Rosetta/MPS for OSIRIS Team MPS/UPD/LAM/IAA/SSO/INTA/UPM/DASP/IDA]
Artist's impression of a protoplanetary disk. [credit: ESO/L. Calçada - ESO]
Creating Gas Giants http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
What is a Sungrazing Comet? http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Pluto/Neptune Orbit http://www2.jpl.nasa.gov/files..../images/browse/pluto [credit: NASA]
1992 QB1 http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/mu....ltimedia/gallery/199 [credit: ESO]
Eris http://apod.nasa.gov/apod/ap060918.html [credit: W. M. Keck Observatory]
Moons of Pluto http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K....erberos_(moon)#/medi [credit: NASA, ESA, and M. Showalter (SETI institute)]
New Horizons Approach http://pluto.jhuapl.edu/common..../content/animations/ [credit: JHUAPL]
Moon http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a....000000/a003800/a0038 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio]
Pluto http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/multimedia/display.cfm?Category=Planets&IM_ID=20073 [credit: NASA/Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory/Southwest Research Institute]
Sedna’s Orbit http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Sedna-PIA05 [credit: NASA]
Artist’s Conception of Kuiper Belt http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:14-281-KuiperBel [credit: NASA, Wikimedia Commons]
Kuiper Belt World (video) http://planetquest.jpl.nasa.gov/video/41 [credit: NASA Kepler Mission/Dana Berry]
Pluto Discovery Plates http://azmemory.azlibrary.gov/....cdm/singleitem/colle [credit: Clyde Tombaugh, Lowell Observatory]

In which John Green teaches you about American women in the Progressive Era and, well, the progress they made. So the big deal is, of course, the right to vote women gained when the 19th amendment was passed and ratified. But women made a lot of other gains in the 30 years between 1890 and 1920. More women joined the workforce, they acquired lots of other legal rights related to property, and they also became key consumers in the industrial economy. Women also continued to play a vital role in reform movements. Sadly, they got Prohibition enacted in the US, but they did a lot of good stuff, too. The field of social work emerged as women like Jane Addams created settlement houses to assist immigrants in their integration into the United States. Women also began to work to make birth control widely available. You'll learn about famous reformers and activists like Alice Paul, Margaret Sanger, and Emma Goldman, among others.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. Suffragists faced a decades-long debate on women’s right to vote: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/address-to-congres
While it was a hard fight to get the vote, women eventually received suffrage in 1920: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/was-hard-fight-to-

Chapters:
Introduction: Women in the Progressive Era 00:00
The Women's Era 1:01
The Women's Christian Temperance Union 1:54
The Role of Women in Politics During the Progressive Era 2:52
National Consumers League 3:15
Women Working Outside the Home 4:08
Mystery Document 4:58
Birth Control 5:57
Why Access to Birth Control Matters 7:07
Jane Addams & The Settlement House Movement 7:47
Women and Electoral Politics 8:13
The 19th Amendment 8:42
The Suffrage Movement 9:03
The National Women's Party 9:44
The Equal Rights Amendment 11:03
The Legacy of the Suffragettes 12:13
Credits 13:00

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In which John Green teaches you about the post-World War II breakup of most of the European empires. As you'll remember from previous installments of Crash Course, Europeans spent several centuries sailing around the world creating empires, despite the fact that most of the places they conquered were perfectly happy to carry on alone. After World War II, most of these empires collapsed. This is the story of those collapses. In most places, the end of empire was not orderly, and violence often ensued. While India was a (sort of) shining example of non-violent change, in places like The Congo, Egypt, Rwanda, Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, things didn't go smoothly at all. John brings you all this, plus pictures of Sea Monkeys. Sadly, they don't look anything like those awesome commercials in the comic books.

Chapters:
Introduction: Decolonization 00:00
What Happens When Empires Fall? 0:33
Post-WWII Decolonization 2:24
Decolonization in India 3:14
Mohandas K. Gandhi 3:47
An Open Letter to Hunger Strikers 5:43
Indonesian Nationalism 6:40
The End of Colonization in French Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia) 7:51
Gamal Abdul Nasser and Egyptian Nationalism 8:35
Decolonization in Central and Southern Africa 9:16
Credits 12:10

Resources:
The Columbia History of the 20th Century https://bit.ly/3xrdpZ9

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In which John Green teaches you about the Little Ice Age. The Little Ice Age was a period of global cooling that occurred from the 13th to the 19th centuries. This cooling was likely caused by a number of factors, including unusual solar activity and volcanic eruptions. The Little Ice Age greatly impacted human social orders, especially during the 17th century. When the climate changed, and the weather became unpredictable, the world changed profoundly. Poor harvests led to hunger, which led to even less productivity, which even resulted in violent upheaval in a lot of places. All this from a little change in the temperature? Definitely.

Reference:
Global Crisis by Geoffrey Parker: https://bit.ly/3M99AvQ

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

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In which John Green teaches you, at long last, about the most exceptional bunch of empire-building nomads in the history of the world, the Mongols! How did the Mongols go from being a relatively small band of herders who occasionally engaged in some light hunting-gathering to being one of the most formidable fighting forces in the world? It turns out Genghis Khan was a pretty big part of it, but you probably already knew that. The more interesting questions might be, what kind of rulers were they, and what effect did their empire have on the world we know today? Find out, as John FINALLY teaches you about the Mongols.

Chapters:
Introduction: Wait for it...The Mongols! 00:00
What does it mean to be a nomad? 1:13
Genghis Khan 2:39
An Open Letter to Genghis Khan's Descendants 4:45
The Mongols After Genghis Khan 5:30
Five Reasons the Mongols Were Awesome 6:54
Five Reasons the Mongols Weren't Awesome 8:30
Credits 10:34

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