Now that we’ve started talking about identity, today Hank tackles the question of personhood. Philosophers have tried to assess what constitutes personhood with a variety of different criteria, including genetic, cognitive, social, sentience, and the gradient theory. As with many of philosophy’s great questions, this has much broader implications than simple conjecture. The way we answer this question informs all sorts of things about the way we move about the world, including our views on some of our greatest social debates.

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All other images via Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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In which Jacob Clifford and Adriene Hill teach you about Economic Systems and Macroeconomics. So, economics is basically about choices. We'll look at some of the broadest economic choices when we talk about the difference between planned economies and market economies. We'll get into communism, socialism, command economies, and capitalism. We'll look at how countries choose the kind of system they're going to use (spoiler alert: many end up with mixed economies). We'll also look into how individuals make economic choices.

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Anna-Ester Volozh, Robert Kunz, Jason A Saslow, Christian Ludvigsen, Chris Peters, Brad Wardell, Beatrice Jin, Roger C. Rocha, Eric Knight, Jessica Simmons, Jeffrey Thompson, Elliot Beter, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Ian Dundore, Jessica Wode, SR Foxley, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, Steve Marshall

TO: Everyone
FROM: Martin

To gild refined gold is just silly.


TO: Dana
FROM: Cameron

Still holding out. We're going to make it!

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

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How do lenses work? How do they form images? Well, in order to understand how optics work, we have to understand the physics of light. In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini talks to us about optical instruments and how they make magnification possible.

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Atoms are a lot like us - we call their relationships "bonds," and there are many different types. Each kind of atomic relationship requires a different type of energy, but they all do best when they settle into the lowest stress situation possible. The nature of the bond between atoms is related to the distance between them and, like people, it also depends on how positive or negative they are. Unlike human relationships, we can analyze exactly what makes chemical relationships work, and that's what this episode is all about.

If you are paying attention, you will learn that chemical bonds form in order to minimize the energy difference between two atoms or ions; that those chemical bonds may be covalent if atoms share electrons, and that covalent bonds can share those electrons evenly or unevenly; that bonds can also be ionic if the electrons are transferred instead of shared: and how to calculate the energy transferred in an ionic bond using Coulomb's Law.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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--
Table of Contents
Bonds Minimize Energy 01:38
Covalent Bonds 03:18
Ionic Bonds 05:37
Coulomb's Law 05:51

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In our final episode of Crash Course Philosophy, we consider what it means to live a good life. We’ll look at the myth of Sisyphus, Robert Nozick’s experience machine, Aristotle’s eudaimonistic picture of a good human life, and the existentialists’ view that we each determine the value of our own lives. And we’ll think about how you, too, can live the life of a philosopher.
--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

--

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Today we continue our unit on identity by asking where the mind resides. Hank explains the mind-body problem and several approaches to the question of where our minds reside, including reductive physicalism, substance dualism, and mysterianism.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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--

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What's that smell? Smell's like Organic Chemistry! This week Hank talks about Aromatics and Cyclic Compounds, naming their substituents, resonance, and common reactions & uses.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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--
Table of Contents

Cyclic Organic Compounds & Naming Their Constituents 1:06
Aromatic Compounds 3:02
Resonance 3:18
Naming Aromatic Compounds 5:05
Common Reactions & Uses 7:24

--

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Today we are investigating our moral obligations to our parents and our families. Do we owe our parents anything as adults? Would it be a good idea to license parents? We’ll explore these questions as well as the ethics of care, and some potential problems that type of approach to morality carries with it.

--

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So we all know that breathing is pretty important, right? Today we're going to talk about how it works, starting with the nameless evolutionary ancestor that we inherited this from, continuing to the mechanics of both simple diffusion and bulk flow, as well as the physiology of breathing, and finishing with the anatomy of both the conducting zone and the respiratory zone of your respiratory system.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: The First Air-Breathers 00:00
Simple Diffusion 2:44
Bulk Flow 3:59
Mechanics of Breathing 4:30
Anatomy of the Conducting Zone 5:47
Anatomy of Respiratory Zone 7:07
Review 8:33
Credits 8:56

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Jan Schmid, Simun Niclasen, Robert Kunz, Daniel Baulig, Jason A Saslow, Eric Kitchen, Christian, Beatrice Jin, Anna-Ester Volozh, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jeffrey Thompson, Ian Dundore, Stephen Lawless, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Jessica Wode, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, SR Foxley, Christy Huddleston, Steve Marshall, Chris Peters

--

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In which Craig Benzine teaches you about the United States Congress, why it's bicameral, and what bicameral means. Craig tells you what the Senate and House of Representatives are for, talks about some of the histories of the institutions, and reveals to you just how you can become a representative. It's not that easy. But an eagle gets punched, so there's that.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

Chapters:
Introduction: What is Congress? 00:00
Who makes up the House of Representatives? 1:09
Who makes up the Senate? 1:38
What does Congress do? 1:58
Powers of the House of Representatives 2:13
Powers of the Senate 3:13
Why is Congress bicameral? 3:52
What's the difference between the Senate and the House? 6:00
Credits 8:32

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This week Craig Benzine talks about the importance of elections in the strongest branch of the U.S. Government: Congress. He'll talk about the frequency of elections in the Senate and House, the typical characteristics of a candidate, and the motivating factors our congresspeople follow to get re-elected.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

Chapters:
Introduction: Congressional Elections 00:00
How Congressional Elections Work 0:59
How Congressional Candidates Get Elected 2:16
Characteristics of Congressional Candidates 3:05
Incumbency Advantage 4:21
The Electoral Connection & Why Congressional Elections Matter 6:01
Credits 8:25

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Welcome to the first episode of Crash Course Astronomy. Your host for this intergalactic adventure is the Bad Astronomer himself, Phil Plait. We begin with answering a question: "What is astronomy?"

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

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Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
What is Astronomy? 3:00
Who Studies Astronomy? 3:50
Origins of Astronomy 5:27
Astrology vs Astronomy 6:19
Geocentrism 7:51
Revolutions in Astronomy 8:58
Astronomy Today 10:26
Review 11:29

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

Photos:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Earth_cutaw
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....arth%27s_magnetic_fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....eomagnetic_storm#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....aturn#mediaviewer/Fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....43_Ida#mediaviewer/F
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Comet_Hale_
http://solarviews.com/raw/comet/kuiper3.jpg
http://solarviews.com/cap/comet/kuiper3.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L....ist_of_nearest_brigh
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B....lack_hole#mediaviewe
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Messier_69_
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/0/0f
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/03/2
http://www.esa.int/spaceinimag....es/Images/2007/02/Tr
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....ndromeda_Galaxy#medi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....riangulum_Galaxy#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H....ubble_Space_Telescop
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/12/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/12/2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N....icolaus_Copernicus#m
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....ycho_Brahe#mediaview
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J....ohannes_Kepler#media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I....saac_Newton#mediavie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....alileo_Galilei#media
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/09/2

In which Craig Benzine teaches you about the United States Congress, why it's bicameral, and what bicameral means. Craig tells you what the Senate and House of Representatives are for, talks about some of the histories of the institutions, and reveals to you just how you can become a representative. It's not that easy. But an eagle gets punched, so there's that.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

Chapters:
Introduction: What is Congress? 00:00
Who makes up the House of Representatives? 1:09
Who makes up the Senate? 1:38
What does Congress do? 1:58
Powers of the House of Representatives 2:13
Powers of the Senate 3:13
Why is Congress bicameral? 3:52
What's the difference between the Senate and the House? 6:00
Credits 8:32

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

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All of the sounds or handshapes in a language can be pronounced differently depending on the context, but in different languages, these differences may be significant, or not. The study of these patterns and variations is known as phonology. In this episode of Crash Course Linguistics, we’ll learn all about phonology and the different phonological systems we see in different languages, and we’ll begin to retrain our brains in order to gain a better understanding and appreciation for phonological patterns.

Want even more linguistics? Check out the Lingthusiasm podcast, hosted by the writers of Crash Course Linguistics: https://lingthusiasm.com/

Check out Self-Evident on PBS Voices: https://youtu.be/PZHAu09iObU

***
Watch our videos and review your learning with the Crash Course App!
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Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Vincent LaBarca, Bjartur Thorlacius, Scott Harrison, Alexander Thomson, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Sam Ferguson, Jirat, Brian Thomas Gossett, SR Foxley, Ian Dundore, Jason A Saslow, Jessica Wode, Caleb Weeks, Mark, Patty Laqua, Stephen Saar, John Lee, Eric Prestemon
__

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In which Adriene Hill and Jacob Clifford teach you about one of the fundamental economic ideas, supply and demand. What is supply and demand? Well, you’ll have to watch the video to really understand it, but it’s kind of important for everything economically. Supply and demand sets prices, and indicates to manufacturers how much to produce. Also, it has a lot to do with strawberries.

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Jan Schmid, Simun Niclasen, Robert Kunz, Daniel Baulig, Jason A Saslow, Eric Kitchen, Christian, Beatrice Jin, Anna-Ester Volozh, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jeffrey Thompson, Ian Dundore, Stephen Lawless, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Jessica Wode, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, SR Foxley, Christy Huddleston, Steve Marshall, Chris Peters

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As we promised last week, we're not quite done talking about your pee yet. Today Hank explains how the urinary system regulates the production of urine, by maintaining a study glomerular flow rate. He'll also cover the anatomy of storing and excreting urine -- from the ureters to the urethra -- and the nervous system’s role in controlling the act of urination.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: Urination 00:00
Glomerular Filtration Rate 2:16
Antidiuretic Hormones (ADH) 3:39
The Bladder 5:02
The Urethra 6:28
Urination 6:53
The Nervous System's Role in Controlling Urination 7:47
Review 8:41

Anatomy & Physiology posters: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-anatom

***

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Fatima Iqbal, Penelope Flagg, Eugenia Karlson, Alex S, Jirat, Tim Curwick, Christy Huddleston, Eric Kitchen, Moritz Schmidt, Today I Found Out, Avi Yashchin, Chris Peters, Eric Knight, Jacob Ash, Simun Niclasen, Jan Schmid, Elliot Beter, Sandra Aft, SR Foxley, Ian Dundore, Daniel Baulig, Jason A Saslow, Robert Kunz, Jessica Wode, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Christian, Caleb Weeks, Jeffrey Thompson, James Craver, and Markus Persson

--

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Nachos are great...if you are among the lucky ones whose bodies can digest them. When digestion goes according to plan, the small intestine performs most of your chemical digestion in the duodenum, while accessory organs including the liver, gallbladder, and pancreas contribute enzymes that all but finish the job. Then your large intestine, which is actually shorter than the small intestine, tries to extract the last bit of nutrition, including the occasional attempt to turn nachos into energy, which for most humans, ends in gassy failure.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

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Chapters:
Introduction: Lactose Intolerance 00:00
The Small Intestine 1:41
Parts of the Small Intestine: Duodenum, Jejunum, Ileum 2:53
The Duodenum 3:16
The Liver 4:17
The Gallbladder 5:14
The Pancreas 5:35
The Large Intestine 6:37
Why Nachos Might Make You Gassy 7:46
How Do We Poop? 8:13
Review 9:10
Credits 9:48

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark , Elliot Beter, Moritz Schmidt, Jeffrey Thompson, Ian Dundore, Jacob Ash, Jessica Wode, Today I Found Out, Christy Huddleston, James Craver, Chris Peters, SR Foxley, Steve Marshall, Simun Niclasen, Eric Kitchen, Robert Kunz, Avi Yashchin, Jason A Saslow, Jan Schmid, Daniel Baulig, Christian , Anna-Ester Volozh

--

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What is an underground economy? Whether you call it a black market, a grey market, or just the shop down the street, its about connecting people with goods outside of official channels. Some stuff happens in the underground economy because it's illegal, but a lot of the money that moves around this way is exchanged for pretty mundane goods and services. We'll talk about how these things work, and the awesome ways that economists figure out where all that money is.

Stan Muller teaches you a few things about copyright enforcement and talks about the exceptions to copyright enforcement. While there are several, the one you've probably heard of is Fair Use, and it's a pretty tricky one. We'll try to explain it and teach you just why fair use is so loosey-goosey.

Citation1: 17 USC 503
Citation 2: Hargreaves, Ian. Digital Opportunity: A Review of Intellectual Property and Growth. UK Intellectual Property Office. P 5
Citation 3: Iowa State Univ. Research Found., Inc. v. American Broadcasting Cos., 621 F.2d 57 (2d Cir. 1980)
Citation 4: Harper & Row, Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 551, 105 S. Ct. 2218, 85 L. Ed. 2d 588 (1985) (quoting) Joseph McDonald, Non-Infringing Uses, 9 Bull. Copyright Soc'y 466, 467 No. 355 (1962)

Links We Promised:
Copyright Office Fair Use Index: http://copyright.gov/fair-use/
Best Practices Documents:
http://www.cmsimpact.org/fair-use/best-practices
http://infringementnation.com

***
Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Steve MarshallAnna-Ester Volozh, Sandra Aft, Brad Wardell, Christian Ludvigsen, Robert Kunz, Jason, A Saslow, Jacob Ash, Jeffrey Thompson, Jessica Simmons, James Craver, Simun Niclasen, SR Foxley, Roger C. Rocha, Nevin, Spoljaric, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jessica Wode, Sofie Harning, Sour Bags & Totes, Don Phillips, Christian Dodson, Christian Dodson (once again), Christian Dodson (again), Christian Dodson (NO EDGE), tuseroni, Amy Guerrero

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We've reached the grand finale of our four-part series on human reproduction: BABIES! Today Hank walks you through the stages of pregnancy, beginning with how a zygote develops into blastomeres to a morula to a blastocyst, and finally to an embryo and a fetus. He also explains some of the amazing anatomical changes that take place in the mother and the hormonal sequence of events that lead to labor.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Chapters:
Introduction: How Did You Get Here? 00:00
Cleavage Stage: Zygote, Blastomeres, Morula, Blastocyst1:34
Implantation 3:08
The Placenta 4:50
Embryonic Stage 5:07
Female Anatomical Changes During Pregnancy 5:30
Hormonal Sequences Leading to Labor 7:12
Stages of Labor: Dilation, Expulsion, Placental Delivery 8:35
Review 9:34

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks

--

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