Today Craig is going to talk about a topic that makes voters and politicians alike ANGRY! We're going to talk about Gerrymandering - that is the process in which voting districts are redrawn in a way to favor one party during elections. As you'll see, this is why election outcomes on Census years (which tend to be when districts are redrawn) are a really big deal. So we'll talk about how some of these cockamamie voting districts come to be and explain how Gerrymandering can affect the outcomes (and misrepresent voters) during elections. But even with all these rage-inducing and bizarre district maps, it's important to remember that it isn't ALL political scheming, but also a reflection of the tendency for Democrats to live in urban areas.

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

All attributed images are licensed under Creative Commons by Attribution 4.0
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We continue our tour of the nervous system by looking at synapses and the crazy stuff cocaine does to your brain.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Chapters:
Introduction: What are Synapses? 00:00
Electrical vs Chemical Synapses 1:58
How Electrical Synapses Work: Gap Junctions 2:56
How Chemical Synapses Work: Neurotransmitters 4:01
How Neurotransmitters Work 5:33
How Cocaine Works 7:44
Review 9:52
Credits 10:37

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We continue our look at your bones and skeletal system, skipping over the silly kid's song in favor of a more detailed look at your axial and appendicular skeleton. This episode also talks about the structural and functional classifications of your joints and the major types of body movement that they facilitate.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Chapters:
Introduction: Joints 00:00
Axial Bones: Cranial, Facial, Vertebrae, & Thoracic Cage 2:02
Appendicular Bones: Limbs & Pelvis 3:05
Types of Joints 3:33
Functional Classification of Joints: Synarthroses, Amphirthroses, Diarthroses 3:59
Structural Classification of Joints: Fibrous, Cartilaginous, Synovial 4:32
Types of Synovial Joints 5:37
Plane Joints - Gliding Movements 6:02
Hinge Joints - Angular Movements: Flexion, Extension, & Hyperextension 6:20
Condylar Joints - More Angular Movements: Abduction, Adduction, & Circumduction 6:55
Ball & Socket Joints - Rotational Movements 7:23
Saddle Joints - Opposition Movement 7:46
Pivot Joints - Supination & Pronation 8:03
Review 8:26
Credits 8:59

***
Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Sandra Aft, Brad Wardell, Christian Ludvigsen, Robert Kunz, Jason, A Saslow, Jacob Ash, Jeffrey Thompson, Jessica Simmons, James Craver, Simun Niclasen, SR Foxley, Roger C. Rocha, Nevin, Spoljaric, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jessica Wode, Stephen DeCubellis, Vanessa Benavent, Rob Palmer, Dr. John D. Trombley, BouwsT, Robin Duckworth, Kyle "Defender of Awesome" Willis, Damian Shaw, Elisa DeCastro, Johnny Young!

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This week we are looking at your parasympathetic division, which is the "resting and digesting" unit. Unfortunately, learning about this de-stressing division also involves a whole lot of memorization. Don't worry, though - we've got some mnemonic devices to help you out!

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: Parasympathetic Nervous System 00:00
Comparing Structures of the Sympathetic & Parasympathetic Nervous Systems 1:41
What Do Cranial Nerves Do? 2:49
The 12 Cranial Nerves 4:03
Mnemonics & Memory Tips for Studying the 12 Cranial Nerves 5:24
Vagus Nerve 6:40
The Autonomic Nervous System & Sex 8:16
Review 9:13
Credits 9:53

***
Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Simun Niclasen, Brad Wardell, Roger C. Rocha, Jan Schmid, Elliot Beter, Nevin Spoljaric, Sandra Aft, SR Foxley, Jessica Simmons, Stefan R. Finnerup, Jason A Saslow, Robert Kunz, Jessica Wode, Mike Drew, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Christian Ludvigsen, Jeffrey Thompson, James Craver, Alex Lee CPA, Liz Siron, Kathryn "Fallout Shelter" Plimpton, Daniel McLaughlin, Kate Plimpton, Thanks Zujus!, Charlie Kuski, Rachel Lee, Felicia Gilcris

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In which Craig Benzine teaches you about the compromises met in ratifying the U.S. Constitution. The United States didn’t always have its current system of government. Actually, this is its second attempt. Craig will delve into the failures (and few successes) of the Articles of Confederation, tell you how delegates settled on a two-house system of representation, discuss the issues of slavery and population that have been embedded into our constitution, and fire up the clone machine to discuss how federalists and anti-federalist opposition provided the U.S. a Bill of Rights. And who knows, maybe all this talk of compromise will even inspire Craig and eagle to find some middle ground.


Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Support is provided by Voqal: http://www.voqal.org

Chapters:
Introduction: The Constitution 00:00
The Articles of Confederation: Precursor to the Constitution 0:28
Why did the Articles of Confederation fail? 1:15
The Northwest Ordinance of 1787 2:06
The Virginia Plan 2:35
The New Jersey Plan 3:14
The Connecticut Compromise / The Great Compromise 3:30
The 3/5ths Compromise 4:00
Ratification of the U.S. Constitution 5:22
Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists 6:09
The Bill of Rights 7:36
Credits 8:23

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So how do we apply the scientific method to psychological research? Lots of ways, but today Hank talks about case studies, naturalistic observation, surveys and interviews, and experimentation. Also, he covers different kinds of bias in experimentation and how research practices help us avoid them.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: Intuition & Hindsight Bias 00:00
The Scientific Method 2:05
Case Studies 3:05
Naturalistic Observation 3:48
Surveys and Interviews 4:15
Drawing Conclusions 5:26
Experimentation 6:35
Experiment Time! 7:48
Review 9:54
--

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Today we're talking about the heart and heartthrobs -- both literal and those of the televised variety. Hank explains how your heart’s pacemaker cells use leaky membranes to generate their own action potentials, and how the resulting electricity travels through the cardiac conduction pathway from SA Node to Purkinje fibers, allowing your heart to contract. He's also going to make you better able to spot inaccuracies in medical dramas by explaining how defibrillators work to reset the rhythm of your heart.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: Cardiac Arrest 00:00
Cardiac Muscle Tissue Structure 1:24
Pacemaker Cells - The Brain of Your Heart 2:49
The Intrinsic Cardiac Conduction System 3:56
How Defbrilators Work 6:46
Review 8:33
Credits 9:07

***

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Anna-Ester Volozh, Robert Kunz, Jason A Saslow, Christian Ludvigsen, Chris Peters, Brad Wardell, Beatrice Jin, Roger C. Rocha, Eric Knight, Jessica Simmons, Jeffrey Thompson, Elliot Beter, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Ian Dundore, Jessica Wode, SR Foxley, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, Steve Marshall

***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: Beth
FROM: Joey

I Love You Beth Ronie With All Of My Heart!

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FROM: Future Is The Future

Awesome gender neutral vintage clothing: http://futureisthefuture.com

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

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How did we get here? Well, in terms of Atomic Chemistry, Hank takes us on a tour of the folks that were part of the long chain of other folks who helped us get to these deeper understandings of the world. From Leucippus to Heisenberg to you - yes, YOU - the story of Atomic Chemistry is all wibbly-wobbly... and amazing.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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--
Table of Contents

Leucippus, Democritus & Atomic Theory 0:09
Discharge Tubes 1:52
Ernest Rutherford & The Nucleus 4:22
Chemistry = Math 7:22
Niels Bohr Model 5:32
Heisenburg & Quantum Theory 6:35
--

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Slavery was inherently cruel and unjust, and it was cruel and unjust to different people in different ways. Today, Clint Smith teaches you about the experience of enslaved women, and how their experience of slavery was different than men. Women had a unique vantage point to understand slavery, and were particularly vulnerable to some terrible abuses under the institution.

Clint's book, How the Word is Passed is available now! https://bookshop.org/a/3859/9780316492935

SOURCES
- Samuel H. Williamson & Louis Cain, "Measuring Slavery in 2016 dollars," MeasuringWorth, 2020.
-"A Prelude to War: The 1850s." African American Lives: The Struggle for Freedom, by Clayborne Carson et al., Pearson Longman, 2005, pp. 221-222.
-Modern History Sourcebook: Sojourner Truth: "Ain't I a Woman?", December 1851
-Quoted in Deborah Gray White, Ar' n't I a Woman? Female Slaves in the Plantation South, rev. ed. (New York: Norton, 1999), 102.

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Michael M. Varughese, Ben Follows, Kyle & Katherine Callahan, Laurel A Stevens, Chris Routh, Evan Lawrence Henderson, Vincent, Emilee Murphy, Michael Wang, Jordan willis, Krystle Young, Michael Dowling, Alexis B, Rene Duedam, Burt Humburg, Aziz, Nick, DAVID MORTON HUDSON, Perry Joyce, Scott Harrison, Mark & Susan Billian, Junrong Eric Zhu, Alan Bridgeman, Rachel Creager, Jennifer Smith, Matt Curls, Tim Kwist, Jonathan Zbikowski, Jennifer Killen, Sarah & Nathan Catchings, Brandon Westmoreland, team dorsey, Trevin Beattie, Divonne Holmes à Court, Eric Koslow, Indika Siriwardena, Khaled El Shalakany, Jason Rostoker, Shawn Arnold, Siobhán, Ken Penttinen, Nathan Taylor, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, ThatAmericanClare, Rizwan Kassim, Sam Ferguson, Alex Hackman, Eric Prestemon, Jirat, Katie Dean, TheDaemonCatJr, Wai Jack Sin, Ian Dundore, Matthew, Jason A Saslow, Justin, Jessica Wode, Mark, Caleb Weeks
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#crashcourse #history #blackhistory

How would you measure a personality? What, exactly, is the self? Well, as you've come to expect, it's not that easy to nail down an answer to those questions. Whether you're into blood, bile, earth, wind, fire, or those Buzzfeed questionnaires, there are LOTS of ways to get at who we are and why.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: Personality Types 00:00
Trait Theory of Personality 1:35
The Big 5: Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, & Extraversion 3:15
Social Cognitive Perspective of Personality 4:46
Internal vs. External Locus of Control 5:54
Testing & Measuring Personality 6:15
Thematic Apperception Test 6:51
Personality Trait Inventories 7:31
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory 8:05
Social Cognitive Personality Assessments 8:24
Humanistic Self-Concept Evaluations 9:01
Who or what is the self? 9:22
Review & Credits 10:17
--
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Hank resists the urge to devour a slice of pizza so that he can walk you through the way we experience our major special senses. It all boils down to one thing: sensory cells translate chemical, electromagnetic, and mechanical stimuli into action potentials that our nervous system can make sense of. Today we're focusing on smell (olfaction) and taste (gustation), which are chemical senses that call on chemoreceptors. As usual, we'll begin with a quick look at how these things can go wrong.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Chapters:
Introduction: Anosmia 00:00
How Smell Works 2:13
Olfactory Epithelium 2:47
Olfactory Sensory Neurons 3:19
Glomerulus 3:47
How the Brain Processes Smell 4:48
How Taste Works 6:19
What Are Taste Buds (Taste Receptor Epithelial Cells)? 6:40
Types of Taste Receptor Epithelial Cells: Gustatory and Basal 7:53
How Different Tastants are Sensed 8:37
Review 9:28
Credits 10:05

***

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Mark Brouwer, Simun Niclasen, Brad Wardell, Roger C. Rocha, Jan Schmid, Elliot Beter, Nevin Spoljaric, Sandra Aft, SR Foxley, Jessica Simmons, Stefan R. Finnerup, Jason A Saslow, Robert Kunz, Jessica Wode, Mike Drew, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Christian Ludvigsen, Jeffrey Thompson, James Craver, Suzanne, Dustin & Owen Mets, Amy Fuller, Simon Francis, Max Bild-Enkin, Ines Krueger, King of Conquerors Gareth Mok, Chris Ronderos, Gabriella Mayer, jeicorsair, Tokyo Coquette Boutique, Konradical the nonradical

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Nearly 200 years ago, Alexis St. Martin was shot in the stomach. He was saved by local army doctor William Beaumont but had to live out his remaining years with a gaping hole in the stomach -- allowing Beaumont to learn a lot about how human digestion works. So today we're going to walk you through that process. We'll cover how mechanical and chemical digestion starts in the mouth and continues in the stomach, where it’s pummeled by acids and enzymes and turned into chyme. We will also go over the stomach’s cephalic, gastric, and intestinal phases of digestive regulation.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

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Chapters:
Introduction: Alexis St. Martin's Stomach Hole 00:00
Digestion Starts in the Mouth 2:45
The Stomach 4:37
Stomach Acid 5:38
Phases of Digestive Regulation: Cephalic, Gastric, and Intestinal 7:17
The Mind-Stomach Connection 8:55
Review 9:54
Credits 10:29

***

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Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark , Elliot Beter, Moritz Schmidt, Jeffrey Thompson, Ian Dundore, Jacob Ash, Jessica Wode, Today I Found Out, Christy Huddleston, James Craver, Chris Peters, SR Foxley, Steve Marshall, Simun Niclasen, Eric Kitchen, Robert Kunz, Avi Yashchin, Jason A Saslow, Jan Schmid, Daniel Baulig, Christian , Anna-Ester Volozh

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After weeks of exploring the existence of nature of god, today Hank explores one of the biggest problems in theism, and possibly the biggest philosophical question humanity faces: why is there evil?

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Images and video via VideoBlocks or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

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Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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What do you and a sack of batteries have in common? Today, Hank explains.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
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Chapters:
Introduction: What do Neurons Do? 00:00
Your Body is a Sack of Batteries 1:18
How Electricity Works Inside Your Nervous System 3:18
Sodium-Potassium Pump 4:04
Types of Ion Channels: Voltage-Gated, Ligand-Gated, and Mechanically-Gated 4:51
Graded Potential vs. Action Potential 5:45
Depolarization 6:19
Repolarization 7:35
Hyperpolarization 8:00
Refractory Period 8:14
Review 10:06
Credits 10:29
Crash Course Kids Preview! 10:39

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They say money can't buy happiness, but who are they? Can money buy happiness? The answer is: sort of. While money may not be able to buy true happiness, lack of money can cause very real misery. Today, we look at the economics of happiness, and talk about how much money it takes to be happy. And where you should live to maximize your income-to-happiness ratio.


Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

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Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks, and Sheikh Kori Rahman.

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In which John Green teaches you about the life and death of one of history's great explorers, Captain James Cook of the British Navy. He charted large swaths of the Pacific ocean, laid claim to Australia and New Zealand, and died a bizarre death in the Sandwich Islands, which are now called the Hawaiian Islands. Exactly how and why Captain Cook was killed in Hawaii is a long-running historical debate. John presents two interpretations of the event and talks about what the differing interpretations say about history. It turns out how the story is told depends on who is doing the storytelling, and people from different backgrounds can interpret events in very different ways. Also, there is a celebration and a mustache involved in this episode, so you definitely don't want to miss it.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Captain James Cook 0:33
An Open Letter to "The White Man's Burden" 2:44
Captain Cook's Controversial Death 3:40
Interpretations of Captain Cook's Death: Makahiki 4:19
Issues with the Ritual Death Story 5:19
How Cook Actually (Probably) Died 6:34
Why Did Cook's Ritual Death Myth Persist? 8:03
Credits 10:00

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Hank brings us to the next level of ecological study with ecosystem ecology, which looks at how energy, nutrients, and materials are getting shuffled around within an ecosystem (a collection of living and nonliving things interacting in a specific place), and which basically comes down to who is eating who.

Table of Contents
1) Defining Ecosystems 0:49:1
2) Trophic Structure 4:44:1
a) Primary Producers 5:27
b) Primary Consumers 5:41
c) Secondary Consumers 5:49:1
d) Tertiary Consumers 5:58:2
e) Detrivores 6:08:1
3) Bioaccumulation 8:47

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All the magic that we know is in the transfer of electrons. Reduction (gaining electrons) and oxidation (the loss of electrons) combine to form Redox chemistry, which contains the majority of chemical reactions. As electrons jump from atom to atom, they carry energy with them, and that transfer of energy is what makes all life on Earth possible.

Watch this video in Spanish on our Crash Course en Español channel! https://youtu.be/B-2h7u665AM

Thank you to the following chemistry teachers for their assistance:
James Sarbinoff
Rachel Wentz
Edi González
Lucas Moore
Chris Conley
Addie Clark
Julia Rosinski

Special Thanks to Matt Young at the University of Montana (Geosciences Department, Environmental Biogeochemistry Lab) who helped with the chemical demonstrations.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
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Do we really have free will? Today Hank explores possible answers to that question, explaining theories like libertarian free will and its counterpoint, hard determinism.

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Images via ThinkStock

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
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In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank takes a look at a few experiments that helped us understand how we develop as human beings. Things like attachment, separation anxiety, stranger anxiety, and morality are all discussed... also, a seriously unpleasant study with monkeys and fake mothers.

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!
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Chapters:
Introduction: Attachment 00:00
Harlow's Monkey Mother Experiment 0:47
Touch 2:16
Familiarity 3:01
Attachment Styles: Secure, Insecure Ambivalent, & Insecure Avoidant 3:57
The Importance of Attachment Styles 5:24
Developing Self-Concept 6:45
Parenting Models: Authoritarian, Permissive, & Authoritative 7:36
Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development 8:18
Preconventional Morality Phase 9:27
Conventional Morality Phase 9:44
Postconventional Morality Phase 10:00
Review & Credits 10:48
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