Aerogel has extraordinary properties but it can be tough to work with. This video looks at modifying aerogels to take advantage of their unique characteristics.
Subscribe to Veritasium: https://ve42.co/sub

Huge thanks to Dr. Stephen Steiner and the crew at Aerogel Technologies. To find out more or buy your own aerogel sample, check out: http://www.aerogeltechnologies.com/

Thanks to Dr. Steven Jones and Dr. Mihail Petkov at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory

And thanks to FLIR for loaning us the awesome high definition thermal camera. The footage is amazing! https://www.flir.com

Aerogel’s extraordinary properties are due in large part to its structure. Aerogel is a solid but on the nanoscale it has a mesh or sponge-like structure. The struts of this structure are nanoscale, as are the pores at around 20nm across. This makes silica aerogel incredibly light (it was once the lightest solid but has now been superseded by graphene aerogel), transparent and adsorbent.

An ice-cube sized piece of aerogel has an internal surface area roughly equal to half a football field. Aerogel is used in high end museum cases to regulate humidity. Plus it helps maintain the vacuum on the Mars Insight seismometers - it adsorbs moisture and other outgassed volatiles that come from the spacecraft itself. Proposed uses include as a physical insecticide by ‘drying out insects’ reducing the need for chemical and toxic pesticides.

Special thanks to all my Patreon supporters especially those who contributed feedback to an earlier draft of this video:
a human, Albert Jachowicz-Brzeziński, Alfred Wallace, Arjun Chakroborty, Brent Stewart, Chris Vargas, Chuck Lauer Vose, Clip Tree, Coale Shifflett, Colin Bellmore, DALE HORNE, Eric Velazquez, Fedor Indutny, Fran Rodriguez, James Wong, Jasper Xin, Joar Wandborg, Johnny, Jorge Angel Sandoval, June Kang, Kevin Beavers, Kishore Tipirneni, Levan Ferr, Listen Money Matters, Manuel Zürcher, Mark Bevilacqua, Mathias Göransson, Michael Bradley Wirz, Michael Krugman, Mohammed Al Sahaf, Nicholas Hastings, OddJosh, Patrick Čalija, Peter Tajti, Philipp Volgger, Roberto Rezende, Robin DeBank, Ron Neal, Stan Presolski, Swante Scholz, Tiago Bruno, Tige Thorman, Warrior8252

Filmed by Paul Gramaglia

Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci

Animations by Catherine Chooljian

Music from https://epidemicsound.com “Tonic Zone” “Betelgeuse” “Insidious Mice” “Seaweed” “It’s not that serious” “Platin00m - Sum It”

This is an educational, scientific video.

IQ is supposed to measure intelligence, but does it? Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically – https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

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A huge thank you to Emeritus Professor Cecil R. Reynolds and Dr. Stuart J. Ritchie for their expertise and time.

Also a massive thank you to Prof. Steven Piantadosi and Prof. Alan S. Kaufman for helping us understand this complicated topic. As well as to Jay Zagrosky from Boston University's Questrom School of Business for providing data from his study.

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References:
Kaufman, A. S. (2009). IQ testing 101. Springer Publishing Company.

Reynolds, C. R., & Livingston, R. A. (2021). Mastering modern psychological testing. Springer International Publishing.

Ritchie, S. (2015). Intelligence: All that matters. John Murray.

Spearman, C. (1961). " General Intelligence" Objectively Determined and Measured. - https://ve42.co/Spearman1904

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1907). Le développement de l'intelligence chez les enfants. L'Année psychologique, 14(1), 1-94.. - https://ve42.co/Binet1907

Intelligence Quotient, Wikipedia - https://ve42.co/IQWiki

Radiolab Presents: G. - https://ve42.co/RadioLabG

McDaniel, M. A. (2005). Big-brained people are smarter: A meta-analysis of the relationship between in vivo brain volume and intelligence. Intelligence, 33(4), 337-346. - https://ve42.co/McDaniel2005

Deary, I. J., Strand, S., Smith, P., & Fernandes, C. (2007). Intelligence and educational achievement. Intelligence, 35(1), 13-21. - https://ve42.co/Deary2007

Lozano-Blasco, R., Quílez-Robres, A., Usán, P., Salavera, C., & Casanovas-López, R. (2022). Types of Intelligence and Academic Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Journal of Intelligence, 10(4), 123. - https://ve42.co/Blasco2022

Kuncel, N. R., & Hezlett, S. A. (2010). Fact and fiction in cognitive ability testing for admissions and hiring decisions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19(6), 339-345. - https://ve42.co/Kuncel2010

Laurence, J. H., & Ramsberger, P. F. (1991). Low-aptitude men in the military: Who profits, who pays?. Praeger Publishers. - https://ve42.co/Laurence1991

Gregory, H. (2015). McNamara's Folly: The Use of Low-IQ Troops in the Vietnam War; Plus the Induction of Unfit Men, Criminals, and Misfits. Infinity Publishing.

Gottfredson, L. S., & Deary, I. J. (2004). Intelligence predicts health and longevity, but why?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 13(1), 1-4. - https://ve42.co/Gottfredson2004

Sanchez-Izquierdo, M., Fernandez-Ballesteros, R., Valeriano-Lorenzo, E. L., & Botella, J. (2023). Intelligence and life expectancy in late adulthood: A meta-analysis. Intelligence, 98, 101738. - https://ve42.co/Izquierdo2023

Zagorsky, J. L. (2007). Do you have to be smart to be rich? The impact of IQ on wealth, income and financial distress. Intelligence, 35(5), 489-501. - https://ve42.co/Zagorsky2007

Strenze, T. (2007). Intelligence and socioeconomic success: A meta-analytic review of longitudinal research. Intelligence, 35(5), 401-426. - https://ve42.co/Strenze2007

Deary, I. J., Pattie, A., & Starr, J. M. (2013). The stability of intelligence from age 11 to age 90 years: the Lothian birth cohort of 1921. Psychological science, 24(12), 2361-2368. - https://ve42.co/Deary2013

Flynn, J. R. (1987). Massive IQ gains in 14 nations: What IQ tests really measure. Psychological bulletin, 101(2), 171. - https://ve42.co/Flynn1987

Why our IQ levels are higher than our grandparents' | James Flynn, TED via YouTube - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9vpqilhW9uI

Duckworth, A. L., Quinn, P. D., Lynam, D. R., Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (2011). Role of test motivation in intelligence testing. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(19), 7716-7720. - https://ve42.co/Duckworth2011

Kulik, J. A., Bangert-Drowns, R. L., & Kulik, C. L. C. (1984). Effectiveness of coaching for aptitude tests. Psychological Bulletin, 95(2), 179. - https://ve42.co/Kulik1984

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Amadeo Bee, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Benedikt Heinen, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, MaxPal, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Written by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Petr Lebedev
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Filmed by Derek Muller, Han Evans, & Raquel Nuno
Animation by Fabio Albertelli & Ivy Tello
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images & Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound
Produced by Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, & Han Evans

How the brain works, how we learn, and why we sometimes make stupid mistakes.
Submit ideas: http://ve42.co/GotIdeas
Apply to work with me: http://ve42.co/JoinUs

Thanks to Patreon supporters:
Nathan Hansen, Donal Botkin, Tony Fadell, Zach Mueller, Ron Neal

Support Veritasium on Patreon: http://bit.ly/VePatreon

This video was inspired by the book Thinking Fast and Slow by Daniel Kahneman

Harpist: Lara Somogyi http://ve42.co/Lara
Animator: Jesse Agar http://ve42.co/ThisPlace
Filmed by Raquel Nuno

Music by Kevin MacLeod, http://incompetech.com "Sneaky Adventure" "Harlequin"

How a single phone call from a student helped uncover a flaw that nearly toppled Citicorp. Get an exclusive 15% discount on Saily data plans! Use code veritasium at checkout. Download Saily app or go to https://saily.com/veritasium

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically - https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Correction: From construction images of Citicorp, sharp-eyed viewers might see that the mid-V columns are still there. Those columns help prevent buckling of the diagonal and the weight of people on the floor above, but do not take the majority of the gravity load. So we left them out of our diagram to clearly explain the load paths. See page 70 of this source for more details - https://drive.google.com/file/....d/1ODFo66-_V7Y9vKANb

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates - https://ve42.co/Newsletter

▀▀▀
0:00 Why is the citicorp building on stilts?
4:44 How wind load works
7:49 Tuned Mass Dampers
11:17 The Anonymous Student
14:00 Quartering Winds
18:38 What were the odds of collapse?
20:31 How was the citicorp building fixed?
25:40 Hurricane Ella
27:00 TMDs Take Over The World
28:36 Conspiracies and Cover Ups

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A big thank you for the incredible people without whom we couldn't have done this! 🖤

To Michael Greenburg, author of The Great Miscalculation, for his insights that really brought the story and its context to life. He gave us a pre-copy of his upcoming book, and it is fantastic: https://ve42.co/Miscalc
To Eric Hines for all his help with the technical details, fact-checking, and making sure we got the engineering right.
To Michael J. Vardaro for helping us uncover the details of the story and the resources he provided.
To Brock Hedegaard for helping us dive deep into the Citicorp structural analysis. Learn the fundamentals of structural analysis on his brilliant channel, @StructuresProfH, and see here for his analysis of the citicorp center; https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lE_DspFE2ZM
To Michele Barbato from UC Davis for his inputs on the load calculations.
https://faculty.engineering.ucdavis.edu/barbato/
Matt from @mvvvc for talking us through his wind load analysis.
To Prof. Chris Letchford who helped us understand the impact of wind on Citicorp's structure.
To DongHun Yeo from NIST for discussing his research about wind effects on buildings similar to citicorp: https://ve42.co/WindLoad
Finally, to Team Columbia —who built the epic TMD and ran wind tunnel experiments that made this story come alive.
This includes the folks at the Mechanical Engineering Teaching Laboratory
(Follow all the cool stuff they’re doing: @mechcu, @columbiaengineering or visit https://teachinglab.me/)
Amanda Lombardo, Manager of Instructional Laboratories
Daniela Durón García, Assistant Manager of Instructional Laboratories
Jorge Casas, Machinist
And the amazing seniors from the Columbia Space Initiative:
(Support their awesome work here: columbiaspace.org/support-us/, Follow them: @columbiaspaceinitiative)
Michael Sheehan
Claudio Solano
Jessica Bolar
Kathryn Lampo

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References:
Michael M. Greenburg. The Great Miscalculation via. nyupress.org - https://ve42.co/Miscalc
Joe Morgenstern. The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis via. The New Yorker - https://ve42.co/59Crisis
National Academy of Engineering. William LeMessurier-The Fifty-Nine-Story Crisis: A Lesson in Professional Behavior - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=um-7IlAdAtg
Diane Lee Hartley. Implications of a Major Urban Office Complex: The Scientific, Social and Symbolic Meanings of Citicorp Center via. princeton.edu - https://ve42.co/CitiSymbol
Addition References here: https://ve42.co/citiref

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Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Albert Wenger, Alex Porter, Alexander Tamas, Anton Ragin, Autodidactic Studios, Balkrishna Heroor, Bertrand Serlet, Blake Byers, Bruce, Dave Kircher, David Johnston, David Tseng, Evgeny Skvortsov, Garrett Mueller, Gnare, gpoly, Greg Scopel, HydrochloRick, Jon Jamison, Juan Benet, Keith England, KeyWestr, Kyi, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Matthias Wrobel, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures, wolfee

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Written and Directed by Sulli Yost
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Additional Editing by Axel Oliver, James Horsley and Peter Nelson
3D Modeling by Maydelis Anaya Romero
Animation by Mike Radjabov, Andrew Neet, Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, and Emma Wright
Illustration by Jakub Misiek, Maria Gusakovich and Cainejan Esperanza
Filmed by Sulli Yost, Henry van Dyck, Andrew Abballe, Derek Muller
Produced by Sulli Yost, Derek Muller, Casper Mebius, Zoe Heron, Rob Beasley Spence and Tori Brittain
Additional research by Geeta Thakur
Thumbnail contributions by Ren Hurley and Ben Powell
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images, Pond5, Axiom Images and Storyblocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Key aspects of pyramid construction from quarry to completion.
Check out Audible: http://bit.ly/AudibleVe
Live show in Alabama: http://bit.ly/VeRAOI

The most common misconception about the pyramids is that they were built by slaves. Recent archeological evidence suggests they were instead constructed by paid workers. Some may have performed this work as a form of tax payment for several months of the year. Skilled engineers would have planned and orchestrated the building. An estimated 10,000-20,000 people would have been working on a pyramid at any one point in time. They were well fed and provided with shelter near the pyramids. Plus their burial sites close by indicate they were respected and were not slaves.

Much of the limestone was quarried from the Giza plateau itself, meaning the stones did not need to be transported far. The granite casing of Menkaure's pyramid, on the other hand, was transported from Aswan, around 600 miles, or 1000 km up the Nile.

Editing assistance by Dustin Chow

Music by Kevin MacLeod, Incompetech.com "Desert City" and "Ibn Al-Noor"

Droplets levitate on a bath of liquid nitrogen and are spontaneously self-propelled. Thanks Audible! Start a 30-day trial and your first audiobook is free. Go to https://audible.com/VERITASIUM or text VERITASIUM to 500500.

Special thanks to Dr. Anaïs Gauthier
Physics of Fluids: https://pof.tnw.utwente.nl/

Self-propulsion of inverse Leidenfrost drops on a cryogenic bath
Anaïs Gauthier, Christian Diddens, Rémi Proville, Detlef Lohse, and Devaraj van der Meer
PNAS January 22, 2019 116 (4) 1174-1179; published ahead of print January 22, 2019
https://www.pnas.org/content/116/4/1174

For a detailed description of the setup:
http://www.lps.ens.fr/~adda/pa....piers/Langmuir2016.p

And self-propulsion is also seen: http://www.lps.ens.fr/~adda/pa....piers/InvLeidenfrost

Other recent (hot) Leidenfrost experiments that might be interesting:
* Leidenfrost wheels: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=glRGl-eYuXo
* Leidenfrost maze: https://www.youtube.com/watch?time_continue=174&v=vPZ7sx3EwUY
* Leidenfrost explosions: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z0sp3AjgUy4

Special thanks to Patreon supporters:
Donal Botkin, James M Nicholson, Michael Krugman, Nathan Hansen, Ron Neal, Stan Presolski, Terrance Shepherd

Thanks to Prof. Kevin McKeegan at UCLA for the liquid nitrogen

Filming by Raquel Nuno

Additional animations by Alan Chamberlain

A rare look inside the Svalbard Global Seed Vault which is closed ~350 days a year
Check out Audible: http://bit.ly/AudibleVe
More info on the seed vault: http://wke.lt/w/s/EKFlK
My trip to Norway was funded by Screen Australia, Film Victoria and Genepool Productions as part of a new project. More information soon.

Special thanks to Bente Naeverdal and the Crop Trust: https://www.croptrust.org

An engineer came up with a plan to drop tungsten telephone poles from space - the idea has been seriously considered on multiple occasions, so we tested it. Head to https://brilliant.org/Veritasium to start your free trial. The first 200 will get 20% off Brilliant's annual premium subscription.

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join the community to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

Massive thanks to Archisand for building such a beautiful sandcastle. https://www.youtube.com/@GregLeBon

Huge thanks to John and Angie Miller for helping us with securing the shooting location and going above and beyond to make this shoot happen – http://highdesertlocations.com/

Thanks to Inland Empire Film Services and the San Bernardino County Film Office for portions of the video shot in the County of San Bernardino.

Massive thanks to Dr David Wright for the interview and providing invaluable guidance during the research for this video.

Here’s a great video about space-based missile defense – https://www.ucsusa.org/resourc....es/space-based-missi

Massive thanks to Adam Savage for being part of this video.

Additional photos from NASA and ESA.

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References:
USAF. (2003). The US Air Force transformation flight plan.

Preston, R., Johnson, D. J., Edwards, S. J., Miller, M. D., & Shipbaugh, C. (2002). Space weapons earth wars. Rand Corporation.

Wright, D., Grego, L., & Gronlund, L. (2005). The physics of space security. A Reference Manual, Cambridge.

DeBlois, B. M., Garwin, R. L., Kemp, R. S., & Marwell, J. C. (2004). Space weapons: crossing the US Rubicon. International Security, 50-84.

Baucom, D. R. (2017). The Rise and Fall of Brilliant Pebbles 1. In United States Military History 1865 to the Present Day (pp. 329-376). Routledge.

Hitchens, T., & Samson, V. (2004). Space-based interceptors: still not a good idea. Georgetown journal of international affairs, 21-29.

National Research Council. (2012). Making sense of ballistic missile defense: An assessment of concepts and systems for US boost-phase missile defense in comparison to other alternatives. National Academies Press.

Borger, J. (2005). Bush likely to back weapons in space. The Guardian, 19.

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Special thanks to: Bernard McGee, James Sanger, Elliot Miller, Brian Busbee, Jerome Barakos M.D., Amadeo Bee, TTST, Balkrishna Heroor, Chris LaClair, John H. Austin Jr., OnlineBookClub.org, Eric Sexton, John Kiehl, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Mac Malkawi, Mike Schneider, John Bauer, Jim Buckmaster, Juan Benet, Sunil Nagaraj, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Cy 'kkm' K'Nelson, Sam Lutfi

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Written by Petr Lebedev, Derek Muller, and Emily Zhang
Filmed by Trenton Oliver, Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, Emily Zhang, Raquel Nuno, and Eddie Lopez
Animation by Mike Radjabov, Fabio Albertelli, and Jonny Hyman
Edited by Trenton Oliver
Slow Motion Camera: Shawn Sanders and Anthony Corrales
Sandcastle Timelapse by Greg LeBon and Archisand
Phantom rental from Panny Hire LA
Helicopter Pilots: Rick Shuster and Cliff Fleming
Helicopter Safety Officer: Ryan Hosking
FPV Drone Pilots: Sammie Saing and Josh Ewalt
Production Assistants: Roman Bacvic and Eddie Lopez
Intern: Katie Barnshaw
Additional video/photos supplied by Pond5 and Getty Images
Music from Epidemic Sound
Thumbnail by Ignat Berbeci
Produced by Derek Muller, Petr Lebedev, and Emily Zhang

A recent survey of scientific literacy in Australia found 30% believe it takes one day for the Earth to go around the sun. This video provides qualitative evidence for the finding from Sydney's Eastern beaches.

I always wanted to know why film looked better than video. Moving electronic images have as long a history but were invented for a different purpose. This video was sponsored by B&H Photo: https://www.bhphotovideo.com

Huge thanks to:

Richard Diehl, Video Labguy https://www.youtube.com/user/videolabguy
https://www.labguysworld.com

Branch Education for awesome animations
https://ve42.co/BranchEd

Minutephysics for mechanical TV animations
https://www.youtube.com/minutephysics

Mark Schubin
Engineer and explainer, SMPTE Life Fellow
https://www.smpte.org

This is a video I've long wanted to make, about what makes video look like video and, up until 10 years ago or so, not as appealing as film. I grew up with the two technologies (film and video) in parallel and to me they always seemed like two ways of achieving the same ends: recording and replaying moving images. But their histories are quite distinct. Film was always a way to capture moving images for later replaying. Video started out as a way to transfer images from one place to another instantaneously. This dates back to the first fax machine, mechanical TV, live broadcast tv and ultimately videotapes. This history focuses on the early decades of video and not the more recent switches to chip cameras and solid state storage. Maybe that's a story for another day.

Additional resources and references:

The Dawn of Tape: Transmission Device as Preservation Medium
https://ve42.co/dawnoftape

What Sparked Video Research in 1877? The Overlooked Role of the Siemens Artificial Eye
https://ve42.co/sparkvideo

Video Preservation Website:
http://videopreservation.conservation-us.org

Image Orthicon Tube:
http://interiorcommunicationse....lectrician.tpub.com/

Film vs Digital
https://stephenfollows.com/film-vs-digital/

Eyes of a Generation:
http://eyesofageneration.com

Television in the US:
http://www3.northern.edu/wild/th100/tv.htm

http://www.classictvinfo.com

Music from https://www.epidemicsound.com "Seaweed" "Capture a Picture 1" "Colorful Animation 4"

How does Japan prepare for its devastating earthquakes? With this giant simulator. For a free trial to Shopify go to https://www.shopify.com/veritasium.

If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, head to https://ve42.co/SnatomsV to try Snatoms – a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically.

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A massive thank you to everyone at NIED for allowing access to their facility. Massive thanks to Okouchi-san for arranging this shoot.

A huge thank you to Dr. Yohsuke Kawamata for the tour of E-defense and for sharing his deep expertise.

▀▀▀
References:
Nakashima, M., et al. (2018). Experiences, accomplishments, lessons, and challenges of E‐defense. Tests using world's largest shaking table. Japan Architectural Review, 1(1), 4-17. - https://ve42.co/Nakashima
Suganuma, K. (2005). 3-D Full-Scale Earthquake Testing Facility (E-Defense). NISTEP Science & Technology Foresight Center. - https://ve42.co/Suganuma
Ohtani, K., et al. (2004). Construction of E-Defense (3-D full-scale earthquake testing facility). In Thirteenth World Conference on Earthquake Engineering (Vol. 189). - https://ve42.co/Ohtani
Horiuchi, T., et al. (2022). Contributions of E-Defense Shaking Table to Earthquake Engineering and its Future. Journal of Disaster Research, 17(6), 985-999. - https://ve42.co/Horiuchi
Nakamura, I., et al. (2008). E-Defense experiments on full-scale wooden houses. In Proceedings of the 14th World conference on earthquake engineering, Beijing, China (pp. 12-17). - https://ve42.co/Nakamura
Japan: The Next Big Quake. Financial Times. - https://ve42.co/BigQuake


Images & Video:
Kobe earthquake compilation - https://ve42.co/Kobe


▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
carrotcypher, Chris Harper, Max Paladino, Balkrishna Heroor, Adam Foreman, Orlando Bassotto, Tj Steyn, meg noah, KeyWestr, TTST, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Anton Ragin, Diffbot, Gnare, Dave Kircher, Burt Humburg, Blake Byers, Evgeny Skvortsov, Meekay, Bill Linder, Paul Peijzel, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, David Johnston, Ubiquity Ventures, Richard Sundvall, Lee Redden, Stephen Wilcox, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Michael Krugman, Sam Lutfi.

▀▀▀
Directed by Will Wood and Petr Lebedev
Written by Will Wood, Petr Lebedev and Derek Muller
Edited by Jack Saxon and Trenton Oliver
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Ivy Tello, Leigh Williamson, David Szakaly
Filmed by Petr Lebedev, Lui Kimishima and Derek Muller
Produced by Will Wood, Petr Lebedev, Han Evans and Derek Muller
Thumbnail by Ren Hurley

Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and NIED (E-defense)
Music from Epidemic Sound

I've created an educational product to help people learn chemistry!
You can buy it here: http://www.snatoms.com

How an SAT question became a mathematical paradox. Head to https://brilliant.org/veritasium to start your free 30-day trial, and the first 200 people get 20% off an annual premium subscription.

Special thanks to our Patreon supporters! Join this list to help us keep our videos free, forever:
https://ve42.co/PatreonDEB

I invented Snatoms, a molecule modeling kit where the atoms snap together magnetically. Try it at https://ve42.co/SnatomsV

Huge thanks to Dr. Doug Jungreis for taking the time to speak with us about this SAT question.
Thanks to Stellarium, a wonderful free astronomy simulator – https://ve42.co/Stellarium
Thanks to Newspapers.com, a database of historical newspapers – https://ve42.co/Newspapers

▀▀▀
References:
Summary of this problem by MindYourDecisions – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kN3AOMrnEUs
More cool math about this problem by Kyle Hill – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zCDbB9wvrc
Discussion of a solar day by MinutePhysics – https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nZMMuv0Ltyo
Murtagh, J. (2023). The SAT Problem That Everybody Got Wrong. Scientific American – https://ve42.co/SATSciAm
United Press International (1982). Error Found in S.A.T. Question. New York Times – https://ve42.co/SAT-NYT
Yang (2020). What's the hardest SAT math problem that you've seen? Quora – https://ve42.co/SATQuora
Coin rotation paradox via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/CoinParadox
Simmons, B. (2015). Circle revolutions rolling around another circle. MathStackExchange. – https://ve42.co/CircleRoll
Sidereal time via Wikipedia – https://ve42.co/SiderealWiki
Solar Time vs. Sidereal Time via Las Cumbres Observatory – https://ve42.co/SiderealLCO

Images & Video:
Zotti, G., et al. (2021). The Simulated Sky: Stellarium for Cultural Astronomy Research - https://ve42.co/Stellarium
Newspapers from 1980s - 1990s via Newspapers.com – https://ve42.co/Newspapers
SAT Practice Test via the College Board – https://ve42.co/PracticeSAT
Revolution Definition via NASA – https://ve42.co/RevolutionNASA
Revolution Definition via Merriam-Webster – https://ve42.co/RevolutionWebster
Earth motion animation via NASA – https://ve42.co/OrbitNASA
Satellite animation via NASA – https://ve42.co/SatNASA

▀▀▀
Special thanks to our Patreon supporters:
Adam Foreman, Anton Ragin, Balkrishna Heroor, Bernard McGee, Bill Linder, Burt Humburg, Chris Harper, Dave Kircher, Diffbot, Evgeny Skvortsov, Gnare, John H. Austin, Jr., john kiehl, Josh Hibschman, Juan Benet, KeyWestr, Lee Redden, Marinus Kuivenhoven, Max Paladino, Meekay, meg noah, Michael Krugman, Orlando Bassotto, Paul Peijzel, Richard Sundvall, Sam Lutfi, Stephen Wilcox, Tj Steyn, TTST, Ubiquity Ventures

▀▀▀
Directed by Emily Zhang
Written by Emily Zhang and Gregor Čavlović
Edited by Peter Nelson
Animated by Ivy Tello and Fabio Albertelli
Filmed by Derek Muller
Produced by Emily Zhang, Han Evans, Gregor Čavlović, and Derek Muller

Thumbnail by Ren Hurley
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Pond5
Music from Epidemic Sound

What happens when you shrink robots down to the size of insects? Let’s explore the mind-bending physics behind their superpowers! Engineers get Onshape Professional free up to 6 months: go to https://www.onshape.pro/veritasium to create CAD models and bring your ideas to life.

▀▀▀
00:00 The Problem Of Surface Tension
3:16 How Does A Bee Fly?
7:08 What Powers Something So Small?
8:16 Tiny Muscles
10:36 Pogo Sticks On Mars
11:27 Mini Search Parties
13:29 Swarms Of Spybots
15:55 Penny Sized Combustion Engines
18:40 Science For Science’s Sake

▀▀▀
A massive thank you to Kevin Chen and the Soft and Micro Robotics Laboratory at MIT.
for hosting us and showcasing their incredible robots. Do check out their paper Acrobatics at Insect Scale: https://www.science.org/doi/10.....1126/scirobotics.ad
We’re incredibly grateful to Mechanical Engineering at Cornell and the Harvard Microrobotics Lab for their groundbreaking work that informed much of what we’ve shared here.
Special thanks to Pakpong Chirarattananon and Cameron Aubin for their expertise and insights into mini-robot science.

CORRECTION: The scale bar at 18:19 is wrong. It should be 2cm, not 2mm. Thanks @nicolaszaugg5825 for pointing it out.

▀▀▀
If you’re looking for a molecular modeling kit, try Snatoms, a kit I invented where the atoms snap together magnetically. https://snatoms.com/

Sign up to the Veritasium newsletter for weekly science updates - https://ve42.co/Newsletter

References: https://ve42.co/botsrefs

Video and Image Credits:
Giving bug-like, flying robots a boost by MIT via YouTube - https://ve42.co/FlyingRobots
Leading edge vortex stably attached near the base of a freely flying maple seed Acer pseudo-platanus by Francis Villatoro via YouTube - https://ve42.co/VortexStab
NASA Mars Helicopter Ingenuity Animations by JPLRaw via YouTube - https://ve42.co/IngenuityAnim
Rolls-Royce | SWARM Robots by Rolls Royce via YouTube - https://ve42.co/SWARMRobots
Robot Rescue: Behind The Technology Deployed For Disaster Relief | by NBC News via YouTube - https://ve42.co/RobotRescue
Call to Service: The Final Rescue of 9/11 by 5.11 Tactical via YouTube - https://ve42.co/CallToService
Colony Collapse: The Mystery of the Missing Bees | Retro Report | by NYT via YouTube - https://ve42.co/ColonyCollapse

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Directed by Henry van Dyck
Written by Henry van Dyck
Edited by Nick Lear and Trenton Oliver
Animated by Fabio Albertelli, Jakub Misiek, Emma Wright and Ivy Tello
Filmed by Henry van Dyck, Petr Lebedev and Michael Cimpher
Additional Research by Geeta Thakur and Gabe Strong
Produced by Derek Muller, Henry van Dyck, Rob Beasley Spence, and Tori Brittain
Thumbnail contributions by Ben Powell, Peter Sheppard, Ren Hurley and Henry van Dyck
Additional video/photos supplied by Getty Images and Story blocks
Music from Epidemic Sound

Scientists like Prof Sinclair have evidence of speeding up, slowing, and even reversing aging.
Thanks to LastPass for sponsoring this video. Click here to start using LastPass: https://ve42.co/VeLP

What causes aging? According to Professor David Sinclair, it is a loss of information in our epigenome, the system of proteins like histones and chemical markers like methylation that turn on and off genes. Epigenetics allow different cell types to perform their specific functions - they are what differentiate a brain cell from a skin cell. Our DNA is constantly getting broken, by cosmic rays, UV radiation, free radicals, x-rays and regular cell division etc. When our cells repair that damage, the epigenome is not perfectly reset. And hence over time, noise accumulates in our epigenome. Our cells no longer perform their functions well.

To counter this decline, we can activate the body's own defenses against aging by stressing the body. Eat less, eat less protein, engage in intense exercise, experience uncomfortable cold. When the body senses existential threats it triggers longevity genes, which attempt to maintain the body to ensure its survival until good times return. This may be the evolutionary legacy of early bacteria, which established these two modes of living (repair and protect vs grow and reproduce). Scientists are uncovering ways to mimic stresses on the body without the discomfort of fasting. Molecules like NMN also trigger sirtuins to monitor and repair the epigenome. This may slow aging.

Reversing aging requires an epigenetic reset, which may be possible using Yamanaka factors. These four factors can revert an adult cell into a pluripotent stem cell. Prof. Sinclair used three of the four factors to reverse aging in the retinal cells of old mice. He found they could see again after the treatment.

Special thanks to:
Professor David Sinclair, check out his book "Lifespan: Why We Age & Why We Don't Have To"
Assistant Professor David Gold
Noemie Sierra (for polyp images)
Genepool Productions for telomere animations from Immortal: https://ve42.co/immortal
Epigenetics animations (DNA, histones, methylation etc) courtesy of: http://wehi.tv
Animation: Etsuko Uno
Art and Technical Direction: Drew Berry
Sound Design: Francois Tetaz & Emma Bortignon
Scientific Consultation: Marnie Blewitt
Courtesy of Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research

Filming, editing and animation by Jonny Hyman and Derek Muller

Music from https://epidemicsound.com "Clearer Views" "Innovations" "A Sound Foundation" "Seaweed"
Additional music by Kevin MacLeod from https://incompetech.com "Marty Gots a Plan"

I got the chance to interview Bill Gates so I asked him: Will Covid-19 be the last pandemic? How does he deal with misinformation and conspiracy theories? And what is the next disaster? The Foundation Letter is here: https://ve42.co/BG21

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Thanks to Petr Lebedev for the thumbnail, early edits and Jonny Hyman for feedback

In a zero-g plane I experimented with flames and slinkies with surprising results.
Check out e-penser's video: http://ve42.co/EPzeroG
Check out Physicsgirl's video: http://ve42.co/PGzeroG

Thanks to Novespace: http://ve42.co/novespace

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Tony Fadell, Donal Botkin, Nick Luchsinger, Jeff Straathof, Zach Mueller, Ron Neal, Nathan Hansen

The zero-g plane allows for a lot of experiments to be conducted without the expense of getting equipment into orbit. Apparently 80% of microgravity research can be performed in a zero-gravity plane, which is much cheaper than going to space. The flame from the lighter seemed much lazier in zero-g because without weight there is no buoyant force and therefore no convection. This makes the process of combustion more challenging because it's difficult for oxygen to reach the fuel.

Music from the Epidemic Sound: http://ve42.co/epidemic
"Serene Story 2" "In Orbit 2"

Grant Thompson - the King of Random - teaches me how to start a fire with a Sandwich bag. And we tried to melt glass in my backyard: https://goo.gl/zb0uE0
Check out his channel: http://ve42.co/KoR

The intensity of sunlight on Earth is about 1300 Watts per square meter. When you focus the sun's rays using a magnifying glass (or in this case sphere of water) you can increase the intensity roughly ten thousand fold. This increases the temperature of wood to its autoignition point starting the reaction with oxygen in the atmosphere. By protecting the hot embers and adding more energy and fuel, you can get these hot coals to start a roaring fire.

Special thanks to Patreon Supporters:
Tony Fadell, Donal Botkin, Jeff Straathof, Zach Mueller, Ron Neal, Nathan Hansen

Support Veritasium on Patreon: http://ve42.co/patreon

Imagine solving a rabies outbreak with chicken heads.

#kurzgesagt
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We got a bird flu simulator before GTA 6... 🐔

But seriously – why does bird flu spread so quickly and why is it so difficult to contain its spread? Let's look at it together.

#kurzgesagt
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Did you know whales evolved from dog-sized land animals? Meet Pakicetus, the ancestor that started it all.

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Size is the most under appreciated regulators of living things. Let us demonstrate that by throwing animals from buildings.


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What Happens If We Throw an Elephant From a Skyscraper? Life & Size 1

Everything will end. Even the universe. But in a future so far away that it defies description, there will still be light and therefore a chance for life. It will be around White Dwarfs, the corpses of stars. But even they will fade one day..

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The Last Light Before Eternal Darkness – White Dwarfs & Black Dwarfs

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What happens if we bring the sun to earth? No, seriously.


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Out in the vast coldness of outer space, there are planets that travel alone through darkness without the boundaries of a system. Here’s how this can happen – and why these frozen deserts might secretly harbor alien life.

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OUR MUSIC ♬♪
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700+ minutes of Kurzgesagt Soundtracks by Epic Mountain:

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Help us caption & translate this video!https://www.youtube.com/timedtext_cs_panel?c=UCsXVk37bltHxD1rDPwtNM8Q&tab=2