BAHHHHHH! Did I scare you? What exactly happens when we get scared? How does our brain make our body react? Just what are Neurotransmitters? In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank takes us to the simplest part of the complex system of our brains and nervous systems: the neuron.
--
Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!
--

Chapters:
Introduction: Brain Chemicals 00:00
Neurons 1:31
Parts of a Neuron 2:07
Synapses 3:08
Neurotransmitters 3:58
Excitatory Neurotransmitters 4:48
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters 5:10
More Neurotransmitters 5:30
Hormones 6:08
Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems 6:44
Endocrine System Glands 7:19
The Pituitary Gland 7:58
How the Nervous & Endocrine Systems Work Together 8:33
Credits 9:33

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Literally, ‘mise-en-scene’ means “placing on stage.” But in film, mise-en-scene encompasses everything the camera is capturing. The artists and crafts-people who work in Production Design, Wardrobe, and Hair and Makeup are responsible for setting the stage of a film and making sure the characters fit on that stage. In this episode of Crash Course Film Production, Lily Gladstone talks us through the roles involved in designing the world of a film.


***

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

The Latest from PBS Digital Studios: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PL1mtdjDVOoO

***

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How does Stranger Things fit in with physics and, more specifically, circuit analysis? I'm glad you asked! In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini walks us through the differences between series and parallel circuits and how that makes Christmas lights work the way they work.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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In this episode of Crash Course Chemistry, Hank goes over the ideas of keeping your life balance... well, your chemical life. Equilibrium is all about balance and today Hank discusses Chemical Equilibrium, Concentration, Temperature, and Pressure. Also, he'll chat about Le Chatalier's Principle and Fritz Haber.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ
--
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Equilibrium = Balance: 0:19
Chemical Equilibrium: 1:25
Le Chatalier's Principle 4:37
Fritz Haber 5:31
--

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We’ve talked about many important concepts for engineers, but today we’re going to discuss a hugely important one that you might not even realize is an engineering concept: ethics. We’ll talk about what a Code of Ethics is. We’ll explore engineering ethics and the ethical theories of utilitarianism, rights ethics, and duty ethics. We’ll also take a look at a few different real life examples of ethical problems in engineering.

Crash Course Engineering is produced in association with PBS Digital Studios: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PL1mtdjDVOoO

Check out Origin of Everything: https://www.youtube.com/channe....l/UCiB8h9jD2Mlxx96ZF

***

RESOURCES:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/ethics/in....troduction/intro_1.s
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/ethic
https://www.nspe.org/resources/ethics/code-ethics
https://www.asce.org/question-....of-ethics-articles/a
https://www.asce.org/question-....of-ethics-articles/j
http://www.asce.org/code-of-ethics/
https://plato.stanford.edu/ent....ries/utilitarianism-
https://onlinemasters.ohio.edu..../blog/ultimate-guide
https://www.raeng.org.uk/polic....y/engineering-ethics
https://interestingengineering.....com/understanding-h

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Sam Buck, Mark Brouwer, Jennifer French Lee, Brandon Westmoreland, dorsey, Indika Siriwardena, James Hughes, Kenneth F Penttinen, Trevin Beattie, Satya Ridhima Parvathaneni, Erika & Alexa Saur, Glenn Elliott, Justin Zingsheim, Jessica Wode, Eric Prestemon, Kathrin Benoit, Tom Trval, Jason Saslow, Nathan Taylor, Brian Thomas Gossett, Khaled El Shalakany, SR Foxley, Sam Ferguson, Yasenia Cruz, Eric Koslow, Caleb Weeks, Tim Curwick, D.A. Noe, Shawn Arnold, Malcolm Callis, Advait Shinde, William McGraw, Andrei Krishkevich, Rachel Bright, Kathy & Tim Philip, Jirat, Ian Dundore
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Hank calls in a friend to do his push-ups for him today to explain how skeletal muscles work together to create and reverse movements. Hank and Claire also demonstrate the role size plays in motor units, the three-phase cycle of muscle twitches, and how the strength and frequency of an impulse affect the strength and duration of a contraction. This episode also explains twitch summation, tetanus, and isotonic vs. isometric movements.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Chapters:
Introduction: Heavy Lifting 00:00
How Muscles Push & Pull 1:13
Functional Muscle Groups: Prime Movers, Antagonists, and Synergists 2:27
Motor Units 3:49
3 Phases of Muscle Twitches: Latent, Contraction, Relaxation 4:41
Graded Muscle Responses 5:22
Temporal Summation vs Tetanus 6:19
Multiple Motor Unit Summation (Recruitment) 7:07
The Size Principle of Recruitment 7:52
Isotonic vs Isometric Movements 8:50
Review 9:28
Credits 9:59


***

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

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***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: Ariela
FROM: Gavi

I love you so much, stay awesome as always!

--

TO: Josiah P.
FROM: Amy P.

I love you!

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

Vanessa Benavent, Les Brown, John Hadfield, Damian Shaw, Burt G. Clothier & Tad A. Saine, Ashley Williamson, Carrie Williamson, Melissa A, Lopin Forsythe, Trevor Sacks

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I'm sure you've heard of Isaac Newton and maybe of some of his laws. Like, that thing about "equal and opposite reactions" and such. But what do his laws mean? And how do they help us understand the world around us? In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini talks to us about just that.

***
Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks


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Hank describes the desperate need many organisms have for nutrients (specifically nitrogen and phosphorus) and how they go about getting them via the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.

Table of Contents:
Nitrogen Cycle 1:46
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria 2:32
Nitrifying Bacteria 3:24
Denitrifying Bacteria 4:34
Phosphorous Cycle 5:16
Lithosphere 5:27
Plants 5:56
Animals 5:56
Decomposers 5:56
Aquatic & Marine Ecosystems 6:24
Sedimentation & Weathering 6:55
Synthetic Fertilizers 7:23

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Interactions between species are what define ecological communities, and community ecology studies these interactions anywhere they take place. Although interspecies interactions are mostly competitive, competition is pretty dangerous, so a lot of interactions are actually about side-stepping direct competition and instead finding ways to divvy up resources to let species get along. Feel the love?

Table of Contents
1) Competitive Exclusion Principle 2:02
2) Fundamental vs. Realized Niche 3:48
3) Eco-lography / Resource Partitioning 5:25
4) Character Displacement 7:29
5) Mutualism 9:15
6) Commensalism 9:55

References
http://www.sciencedaily.com/ar....ticles/c/competitive
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbRPDGikcnc
http://www.instruction.greenri....ver.edu/mcvay/ES204%
http://www.sciencedaily.com/ar....ticles/e/ecological_
http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/MacArthur's_Warblers.html
http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~varanus/MacArthur.html
http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1383283?uid=3739960&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101174112437
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/cours....e/ent591k/symbiosis.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Community_ecology
http://livingseas.org/2011/01/....22/killer-whales-sta
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs..../sea/pugetsound/beac
http://www.visitolympicpeninsu....la.org/tidepools.htm
http://www.annualreviews.org/d....oi/abs/10.1146/annur
http://eol.org/pages/484359/overview
http://www.geog.ubc.ca/biodive....rsity/efauna/Introdu
http://www.daviddarling.info/e....ncyclopedia/S/symbio
http://blogs.discovermagazine.....com/discoblog/2012/0
http://sites.sinauer.com/ecology2e/webext11.1.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/MacArthur's_Warblers.html
http://www.annualreviews.org/d....oi/pdf/10.1146/annur

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In which John Green teaches you about relations between the early English colonists and the Native people they encountered in the New World. In short, these relations were poor. As soon as they arrived, the English were in conflict with the native people. At Jamestown, Captain John Smith briefly managed to get the colony on pretty solid footing with the local tribes, but it didn't last, and a long series of wars with the natives ensued. This pattern would continue in US history, with settlers pushing into native lands and pushing the inhabitants further west. In this episode, you'll learn about Wahunsunacawh (who the English called Powhatan), his daughter Pocahontas, King Philip's (aka Metacom) War, and the Mystic Massacre. By and large, the history of the Natives and the English was not a happy one, even Thanksgiving wasn't all it's cracked up to be.

Hey teachers and students - Check out CommonLit's free collection of reading passages and curriculum resources to learn more about the events of this episode. The English tried and failed for a decade to establish a foothold in the New World in Native territory, leading to the lost colony of Roanoke: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/settling-a-new-wor
When Jamestown was finally established in Virginia in 1607, the local Powhatan tribes sought friendly relations with the settlers, which quickly deteriorated: https://www.commonlit.org/text....s/chief-powhatan-s-a

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Native Americans' Relationship to English Settlers 0:28
Trade Between Europeans and Natives 1:36
Pochahontas 2:23
Conflict, Uprisings, and the Failure of the Virginia Company 3:10
The Puritans' Relationship with Native Americans 4:21
The Pequot War 5:45
King Phillip's War 6:35
Mystery Document 8:24
How Native Americans Resisted Colonization 9:49
Credits 10:54

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In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank talks about these things called "Emotions". What are they? And why do we need them?

Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!

--
Chapters:
Introduction: Emotions 00:00
Theories on Emotions 2:11
Cognition & Emotion 3:35
The Spillover Effect 4:22
Top-Down vs Bottom-Up Approaches to Cognitive Processing 6:09
The Autonomic Nervous System 8:10
Optimal Arousal 8:39
Review & Credits 10:03
--
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In which John Green teaches you the history of the Indian Ocean Trade. John weaves a tale of swashbuckling adventure, replete with trade in books, ivory, and timber. Along the way, John manages to cover advances in seafaring technology, just how the monsoons work, and there's even a disembowelment for you Fangoria fans.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Indian Ocean Trade 0:58
Monsoon Winds 2:19
How did trading work along the Indian Ocean? 3:43
An Open Letter to Kota Rani 4:57
Benefits of seaborne trade 6:14
How Indian Ocean trade facilitated the spread of technology 7:06
Indian Ocean Trade and the spread of Islam 7:33
Geography, Politics, and Indian Ocean Trade 10:13

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This week we introduce sociology’s three major theoretical paradigms, and some of the advantages and disadvantages of each paradigm.

Crash Course is made with Adobe Creative Cloud. Get a free trial here: https://www.adobe.com/creativecloud.html

***

Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Les Aker, Robert Kunz, William McGraw, Jeffrey Thompson, Jason A Saslow, Rizwan Kassim, Eric Prestemon, Malcolm Callis, Steve Marshall, Advait Shinde, Rachel Bright, Kyle Anderson, Ian Dundore, Tim Curwick, Ken Penttinen, Caleb Weeks, Kathrin Janßen, Nathan Taylor, Yana Leonor, Andrei Krishkevich, Brian Thomas Gossett, Chris Peters, Kathy & Tim Philip, Mayumi Maeda, Eric Kitchen, SR Foxley, Justin Zingsheim, Andrea Bareis, Moritz Schmidt, Bader AlGhamdi, Jessica Wode, Daniel Baulig, Jirat

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In which John Green teaches you about Sub-Saharan Africa! So, what exactly was going on there? It turns out, it was a lot of trade, converting to Islam, visits from Ibn Battuta, trade, beautiful women, trade, some impressive architecture, and several empires. John not only covers the West African Malian Empire, which is the one Mansa Musa ruled, but he also discusses the Ghanian Empire and even gets over to East Africa as well to discuss the trade-based city-states of Mogadishu, Mombasa, and Zanzibar. In addition to all this, John considers emigrating to Canada.

Chapters:
Introduction: African History 00:00
King Mansa Musa of Mali 1:22
Mali, the Berbers, and the Islamization of West Africa 3:23
An Open Letter to Ibn Battula 5:29
The End of the Malian Empire 6:17
The Swahili Civilizations of Eastern Africa 6:55
Credits 9:56

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Today we explore the penultimate ethical theory in this unit: contractarianism. Hank explains Hobbes’ state of nature, implicit and explicit contracts, as well as the Prisoner’s Dilemma, and the benefits, and costs, of violating contracts.

--


Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios


--


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In which John Green wraps up revolutions month with what is arguably the most revolutionary of modern revolutions, the Industrial Revolution. While very few leaders were beheaded in the course of this one, it changed the lives of more people more dramatically than any of the political revolutions we've discussed. So, why did the Industrial Revolution happen around 1750 in the United Kingdom? Coal. Easily accessible coal, it turns out. All this, plus you'll finally learn the difference between James Watt and Thomas Newcomen, and will never again be caught telling people that your blender has a 900 Newcomen motor.

Chapters:
Introduction: The Industrial Revolution 00:00
What Was the Industrial Revolution? 1:48
Innovations in the British Textile Industry 2:38
Why did the Industrial Revolution start in Europe? 4:08
An Open Letter to the Steam Engine 4:57
What was going on in China during the Industrial Revolution? 5:35
European Advantages: High Wages and Low Fuel Costs 7:03
What was going on in India during the Industrial Revolution? 9:28
Credits 10:29

Learn more about the Industrial Revolution in these Crash Course videos:
The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course European History #24: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zjK7PWmRRyg
The Industrial Revolution: Crash Course History of Science #21: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FCpqN7GmLYk

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In which John introduces you to quite a lot of Chinese history by discussing the complicated relationship between the Confucian scholars who wrote Chinese history and the emperors (and empress) who made it. Included is a brief introduction to all the dynasties in Chinese history and an introduction to Confucius and the Confucian emphasis on filial piety, the role the mandate of heaven played in organizing China, and how China became the first modern state.

Chapters:
Introduction: China 00:00
Dynasties of China 0:39
The Mandate of Heaven 3:08
The Qin Dynasty 4:59
Confucius and Confucianism 6:32
An Open letter to the Xia Dynasty 8:21
Ren and Li 9:17
The Problem with Early Written Chinese History 9:57
Credits 11:40

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The Silk Road and Ancient Trade: In which John Green teaches you about the so-called Silk Road, a network of trade routes where goods such as ivory, silver, iron, wine, and yes, silk were exchanged across the ancient world, from China to the West. Along with all these consumer goods, things like disease and ideas made the trip as well. As is his custom, John ties the Silk Road to modern life, and the ways that we get our stuff today.

Chapters:
Introduction: The Journey of a T-Shirt 00:00
What Was the Silk Road? 1:03
Nomads, Caravans, and Traders 3:31
The Rise of Silk 4:36
An Open Letter to Billionaires 5:41
Economic Impact of the Silk Road 6:22
The Silk Road and Buddhism 6:40
The Silk Road and Disease 8:20
Credits 9:22

Resources:
Life Along the Silk Road by Susan Whitfield: https://bit.ly/3xmfdTv
The Silk Road: 2000 Years in the Heart of Asia: https://bit.ly/36dGTic

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The big question in the comments last week was, "BUT WHAT ABOUT ECLIPSES?" Today, Phil breaks 'em down for you.

This episode is sponsored by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

As promised, Phil's sun spotting recommendations:

Astronomers Without Borders (charitable org): http://store.astronomerswithoutborders.org/index.php?main_page=product_info&cPath=8&products_id=3

Rainbow Symphony glasses: http://www.rainbowsymphony.com/soleclipse.html

Wide variety of viewers from Rainbow Symphony: http://www.eclipseglasses2017.....com/buy-eclipse-glas

--
Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
How Do Solar Eclipses Work? 0:52
Umbra & Penumbra 2:04
The Sun's Corona 3:17
Solar Eclipse Totality 4:14
Annular Eclipse 5:09
Can You Look at a Solar Eclipse? 5:32
Lunar Eclipses 6:54
Size of the Earth and Moon 8:24
Review 9:27
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTOS/VIDEOS
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=4
http://www.nasa.gov/audience/f....orstudents/k-4/stori
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....clipse#mediaviewer/F
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse_of_Sept
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Solar_eclip
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse#mediavi
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
http://philhart.smugmug.com/Su....n/Queensland-Solar-E
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7YX2blo1eRk
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....olar_eclipse#mediavi
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Geometry_of
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/F....ile:Lunar_eclipse_Ap
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L....unar_eclipse#mediavi
http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=4

Today we explore what obligations we hold with our personal beliefs. Hank explains epistemic responsibility and the issues it raises with everything from religious belief, to ship owning, to vaccinations.

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Images via Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons by 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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