In which John Green teaches you about the Indus Valley Civilization, one of the largest of the ancient civilizations. John teaches you the who, how, when, where, and why of the Indus Valley Civilization, and dispenses advice on how to be more successful in your romantic relationships.

Chapters:
Introduction: Why Do We Study History? 00:00
What Does 'Civilization' Mean? 0:54
Characteristics of a Civilization 1:52
The Indus Valley Civilization 3:03
An Open Letter to Historians 5:57
What Happened to the Indus Valley Civilization? 6:52
Credits 9:00

Additional Resources:
Empires of the Indus - https://goo.gl/NoYqkY
Lots of Indus Valley Civ. photos - https://goo.gl/lo9ehY
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Hank introduces us to comparative anatomy, which studies the similarities and differences in animal anatomy to support the theory of evolution and the shared ancestry of living things.

References:
Campbell Biology, 9th ed.
CliffsAP Biology, 3rd ed.
Thomas Henry Huxley: http://www.strangescience.net/huxley.htm
Tissues: http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~acar....pi/NSC/14-anatomy.ht
Divergence time estimates for the early history of animal phyla...
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pm....c/articles/PMC168965

Table of Contents:
1) Comparative Anatomy 0:00
2) Locomotion 1:19
3) Heterotophy 1:41
4) Convergent Evolution 2:40
5) Biolography 3:40
6) Tissues 6:00
a) Epithelial Tissue 6:11
b) Connective Tissue 6:33
c) Muscle Tissue 7:01
d) Nerve Tissue 7:14
7) Organs 7:32
8) Organ Systems 7:39


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We learn a lot about our surroundings thanks to sound. But... what is it exactly? Sound, that is. What is sound? And how does it travel? And what is this doppler effect that we've heard so much about? In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini goes over some of the basics (and some of the not-so-basics) of the Physics of Sound.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

--

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In which Adriene Hill and Jacob Clifford teach you about specialization and trade, and how countries decide whether they're going to make stuff or trade for stuff. You'll learn about things like comparative advantage, the production possibilities frontier and how to make pizza!

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Anna-Ester Volozh, Robert Kunz, Jason A Saslow, Christian Ludvigsen, Chris Peters, Brad Wardell, Beatrice Jin, Roger C. Rocha, Eric Knight, Jessica Simmons, Jeffrey Thompson, Elliot Beter, Today I Found Out, James Craver, Ian Dundore, Jessica Wode, SR Foxley, Sandra Aft, Jacob Ash, Steve Marshall

TO: Sarah M.
FROM: Anthony M.

"Making our own history awesome! Happy 3 year Anniversary!"

TO: Everyone
FROM: Someone

"The earth is but one country, and mankind its citizens."

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

Nathanial R. Castronovo, Eefje Savelkoul, Nupur Maheshwari, Jacob J., Dominik Steenken, Shai Belfer, Stefan Bjerring Henriksen
James Kribs, Hugo Jobly, Tim Eramo

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We’re picking up where we left off last time, exploring the “ethics of care” and how it applies to extreme poverty. Are we responding to global poverty in a moral way? Philosophers like Peter Singer argue that we have an obligation to prevent harm caused by poverty, whereas Garrett Hardin offers a “lifeboat analogy” to explain our obligations to focus on caring for our own.
--

https://www.oxfam.org
http://www.thelifeyoucansave.org
https://www.againstmalaria.com
http://www.givewell.org/intern....ational/top-charitie

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

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Welcome to the first episode of Crash Course Astronomy. Your host for this intergalactic adventure is the Bad Astronomer himself, Phil Plait. We begin with answering a question: "What is astronomy?"

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
What is Astronomy? 3:00
Who Studies Astronomy? 3:50
Origins of Astronomy 5:27
Astrology vs Astronomy 6:19
Geocentrism 7:51
Revolutions in Astronomy 8:58
Astronomy Today 10:26
Review 11:29

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios
Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

Photos:
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Earth_cutaw
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E....arth%27s_magnetic_fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....eomagnetic_storm#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....aturn#mediaviewer/Fi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2....43_Ida#mediaviewer/F
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Comet_Hale_
http://solarviews.com/raw/comet/kuiper3.jpg
http://solarviews.com/cap/comet/kuiper3.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L....ist_of_nearest_brigh
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/0
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B....lack_hole#mediaviewe
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Messier_69_
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/06/2
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wi....kipedia/commons/0/0f
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/03/2
http://www.esa.int/spaceinimag....es/Images/2007/02/Tr
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A....ndromeda_Galaxy#medi
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....riangulum_Galaxy#med
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H....ubble_Space_Telescop
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/12/2
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/12/2
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N....icolaus_Copernicus#m
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T....ycho_Brahe#mediaview
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J....ohannes_Kepler#media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I....saac_Newton#mediavie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G....alileo_Galilei#media
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2012/09/2

As we continue explore free will, today Hank considers a middle ground between hard determinism and libertarian free will: compatibilism. This view seeks to find ways that our internally motivated actions can be understood as free in a deterministic world. We’ll also cover Frankfurt Cases and Patricia Churchland’s rejection of the free-or-not-free dichotomy and her focus on the amount of control we have over our actions.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

--

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What is an underground economy? Whether you call it a black market, a grey market, or just the shop down the street, its about connecting people with goods outside of official channels. Some stuff happens in the underground economy because it's illegal, but a lot of the money that moves around this way is exchanged for pretty mundane goods and services. We'll talk about how these things work, and the awesome ways that economists figure out where all that money is.

Join Phil for a tour of our capital-M Moon, from surface features, inside to the core, and back in time to theories about its formation.

This episode is brought to you by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--

Chapters:
Introduction: The Moon 00:00
How Big is the Moon? 0:54
Internal Structure of the Moon 1:56
The Moon's Surface: Highlands and Maria 2:15
How the Moon Formed: The Giant Impact Hypothesis 3:42
The Moon's Craters 6:32
Water on the Moon? H2O Yeah! 8:06
Review 9:06

--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--


PHOTOS/VIDEOS
Moon Phase 47.7% http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=3 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center Scientific Visualization Studio]
The Blue Marble http://visibleearth.nasa.gov/view.php?id=57723 [credit: Credit: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Image by Reto Stöckli]
Dramatic Moonset http://www.eso.org/public/images/potw1023a/ [credit: G.Gillet/European Southern Observatory]
Structure of the Moon: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M....oon#mediaviewer/File [credit: Kelvin Song via WikiMedia Commons]
Crater Science Investigations: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center]
Lunar crater Daealus http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Lunar_crate [credit: NASA]
Mare Humorum http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Mare_Humoru [credit: NASA]
Luna 3: http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/img....cat/html/object_page [credit: NASA]
Farside!: http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/298 [credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University]
Theia Earth Collision: http://io9.com/the-incredibly-....violent-history-of-e [credit: Ron Miller, used with permission]
Earth Seen From Early Moon: http://io9.com/the-incredibly-....violent-history-of-e [credit: Ron Miller, used with permission]
Moon Struck: http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/cgi-b....in/details.cgi?aid=1 [credit: NASA's Goddard Space Flight Center]
Tycho: http://www.nasa.gov/images/con....tent/417417main_tych [credit: NASA/Goddard/Arizona State University]
Double crater on the moon: http://www.esa.int/spaceinimag....es/Images/2006/09/Do [credit: ESA/SPACE-X (Space Exploration Institute)]
Stream of Craters: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/LRO/multimedia/l [credit: NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center/Arizona State University]
Full Moon: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M....oon#mediaviewer/File [credit: Gregory H. Revera]
Rille on the valley floor, photographic mosaic from Apollo 15: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S....chroter%27s_Valley#m [credit: NASA]
New Views of Lunar Pits: http://lroc.sese.asu.edu/posts/230 [credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University]
Crater Erlanger: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pa....ges/Mini-RF/multimed [credit: NASA/GSFC/Arizona State University]

BAHHHHHH! Did I scare you? What exactly happens when we get scared? How does our brain make our body react? Just what are Neurotransmitters? In this episode of Crash Course Psychology, Hank takes us to the simplest part of the complex system of our brains and nervous systems: the neuron.
--
Want more videos about psychology? Check out our sister channel SciShow Psych at https://www.youtube.com/scishowpsych!
--

Chapters:
Introduction: Brain Chemicals 00:00
Neurons 1:31
Parts of a Neuron 2:07
Synapses 3:08
Neurotransmitters 3:58
Excitatory Neurotransmitters 4:48
Inhibitory Neurotransmitters 5:10
More Neurotransmitters 5:30
Hormones 6:08
Nervous vs. Endocrine Systems 6:44
Endocrine System Glands 7:19
The Pituitary Gland 7:58
How the Nervous & Endocrine Systems Work Together 8:33
Credits 9:33

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Literally, ‘mise-en-scene’ means “placing on stage.” But in film, mise-en-scene encompasses everything the camera is capturing. The artists and crafts-people who work in Production Design, Wardrobe, and Hair and Makeup are responsible for setting the stage of a film and making sure the characters fit on that stage. In this episode of Crash Course Film Production, Lily Gladstone talks us through the roles involved in designing the world of a film.


***

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

The Latest from PBS Digital Studios: https://www.youtube.com/playli....st?list=PL1mtdjDVOoO

***

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How does Stranger Things fit in with physics and, more specifically, circuit analysis? I'm glad you asked! In this episode of Crash Course Physics, Shini walks us through the differences between series and parallel circuits and how that makes Christmas lights work the way they work.

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

--

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In this episode of Crash Course Chemistry, Hank goes over the ideas of keeping your life balance... well, your chemical life. Equilibrium is all about balance and today Hank discusses Chemical Equilibrium, Concentration, Temperature, and Pressure. Also, he'll chat about Le Chatalier's Principle and Fritz Haber.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!
Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ
--
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Equilibrium = Balance: 0:19
Chemical Equilibrium: 1:25
Le Chatalier's Principle 4:37
Fritz Haber 5:31
--

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In today's episode, Phil looks at how gravity plays out across the universe.

This episode is sponsored by Squarespace: http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

Check out the Crash Course Astronomy solar system poster here: http://store.dftba.com/product....s/crashcourse-astron

--
Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Understanding Mass 1:11
What is Gravity? 2:17
Different Types of Orbit 3:41
Escape Velocity 5:30
Why Are Astronauts Weightless? 7:03
Gravity Warps Space 8:17
Review 8:43
--

PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Follow Phil on Twitter: https://twitter.com/badastronomer

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--

PHOTO/VIDEO CREDITS
First photo by Roscosmos / NTSOMZ/ SRC "Planeta" / zelenyikot.livejournal.com
http://www.slate.com/blogs/bad...._astronomy/2013/09/2
http://commons.wikimedia.org/w....iki/File:Portrait_of
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I....saac_Newton#mediavie
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J....ohannes_Kepler#media
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K....aren_L._Nyberg#media
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=doN4t5NKW-k

Hank calls in a friend to do his push-ups for him today to explain how skeletal muscles work together to create and reverse movements. Hank and Claire also demonstrate the role size plays in motor units, the three-phase cycle of muscle twitches, and how the strength and frequency of an impulse affect the strength and duration of a contraction. This episode also explains twitch summation, tetanus, and isotonic vs. isometric movements.

Pssst... we made flashcards to help you review the content in this episode! Find them on the free Crash Course App!

Download it here for Apple Devices: https://apple.co/3d4eyZo
Download it here for Android Devices: https://bit.ly/2SrDulJ

Chapters:
Introduction: Heavy Lifting 00:00
How Muscles Push & Pull 1:13
Functional Muscle Groups: Prime Movers, Antagonists, and Synergists 2:27
Motor Units 3:49
3 Phases of Muscle Twitches: Latent, Contraction, Relaxation 4:41
Graded Muscle Responses 5:22
Temporal Summation vs Tetanus 6:19
Multiple Motor Unit Summation (Recruitment) 7:07
The Size Principle of Recruitment 7:52
Isotonic vs Isometric Movements 8:50
Review 9:28
Credits 9:59


***

Crash Course is now on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark Brouwer, Jan Schmid, Steve Marshall, Anna-Ester Volozh, Sandra Aft, Brad Wardell, Christian Ludvigsen, Robert Kunz, Jason, A Saslow, Jacob Ash, Jeffrey Thompson, Jessica Simmons, James Craver, Simun Niclasen, SR Foxley, Roger C. Rocha, Nevin, Spoljaric, Eric Knight, Elliot Beter, Jessica Wode

***SUBBABLE MESSAGES***

TO: Ariela
FROM: Gavi

I love you so much, stay awesome as always!

--

TO: Josiah P.
FROM: Amy P.

I love you!

***SUPPORTER THANK YOU!***

Thank you so much to all of our awesome supporters for their contributions to help make Crash Course possible and freely available for everyone forever:

Vanessa Benavent, Les Brown, John Hadfield, Damian Shaw, Burt G. Clothier & Tad A. Saine, Ashley Williamson, Carrie Williamson, Melissa A, Lopin Forsythe, Trevor Sacks

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Today we conclude our unit on Philosophy of Religion and Hank gets a little help from Indiana Jones to explain religious pragmatism and Pascal’s Wager, fideism, and Kierkegaard’s leap to faith.

--

“Indiana Jones” © Copyright Walt Disney Studios
All other images and video via VideoBlocks or Wikimedia Commons, licensed under Creative Commons BY 4.0: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

--

Produced in collaboration with PBS Digital Studios: http://youtube.com/pbsdigitalstudios

Crash Course Philosophy is sponsored by Squarespace.
http://www.squarespace.com/crashcourse

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Hank describes the desperate need many organisms have for nutrients (specifically nitrogen and phosphorus) and how they go about getting them via the nitrogen and phosphorus cycles.

Table of Contents:
Nitrogen Cycle 1:46
Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria 2:32
Nitrifying Bacteria 3:24
Denitrifying Bacteria 4:34
Phosphorous Cycle 5:16
Lithosphere 5:27
Plants 5:56
Animals 5:56
Decomposers 5:56
Aquatic & Marine Ecosystems 6:24
Sedimentation & Weathering 6:55
Synthetic Fertilizers 7:23

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Interactions between species are what define ecological communities, and community ecology studies these interactions anywhere they take place. Although interspecies interactions are mostly competitive, competition is pretty dangerous, so a lot of interactions are actually about side-stepping direct competition and instead finding ways to divvy up resources to let species get along. Feel the love?

Table of Contents
1) Competitive Exclusion Principle 2:02
2) Fundamental vs. Realized Niche 3:48
3) Eco-lography / Resource Partitioning 5:25
4) Character Displacement 7:29
5) Mutualism 9:15
6) Commensalism 9:55

References
http://www.sciencedaily.com/ar....ticles/c/competitive
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbRPDGikcnc
http://www.instruction.greenri....ver.edu/mcvay/ES204%
http://www.sciencedaily.com/ar....ticles/e/ecological_
http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/MacArthur's_Warblers.html
http://uts.cc.utexas.edu/~varanus/MacArthur.html
http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/1383283?uid=3739960&uid=2129&uid=2&uid=70&uid=4&uid=3739256&sid=21101174112437
http://www.cals.ncsu.edu/cours....e/ent591k/symbiosis.
http://www.eoearth.org/article/Community_ecology
http://livingseas.org/2011/01/....22/killer-whales-sta
http://www.ecy.wa.gov/programs..../sea/pugetsound/beac
http://www.visitolympicpeninsu....la.org/tidepools.htm
http://www.annualreviews.org/d....oi/abs/10.1146/annur
http://eol.org/pages/484359/overview
http://www.geog.ubc.ca/biodive....rsity/efauna/Introdu
http://www.daviddarling.info/e....ncyclopedia/S/symbio
http://blogs.discovermagazine.....com/discoblog/2012/0
http://sites.sinauer.com/ecology2e/webext11.1.html
http://www.stanford.edu/group/stanfordbirds/text/essays/MacArthur's_Warblers.html
http://www.annualreviews.org/d....oi/pdf/10.1146/annur

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In which John Green teaches you the history of the Indian Ocean Trade. John weaves a tale of swashbuckling adventure, replete with trade in books, ivory, and timber. Along the way, John manages to cover advances in seafaring technology, just how the monsoons work, and there's even a disembowelment for you Fangoria fans.

Chapters:
Introduction 00:00
Indian Ocean Trade 0:58
Monsoon Winds 2:19
How did trading work along the Indian Ocean? 3:43
An Open Letter to Kota Rani 4:57
Benefits of seaborne trade 6:14
How Indian Ocean trade facilitated the spread of technology 7:06
Indian Ocean Trade and the spread of Islam 7:33
Geography, Politics, and Indian Ocean Trade 10:13

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They say money can't buy happiness, but who are they? Can money buy happiness? The answer is: sort of. While money may not be able to buy true happiness, lack of money can cause very real misery. Today, we look at the economics of happiness, and talk about how much money it takes to be happy. And where you should live to maximize your income-to-happiness ratio.


Crash Course is on Patreon! You can support us directly by signing up at http://www.patreon.com/crashcourse

Thanks to the following Patrons for their generous monthly contributions that help keep Crash Course free for everyone forever:

Mark, Eric Kitchen, Jessica Wode, Jeffrey Thompson, Steve Marshall, Moritz Schmidt, Robert Kunz, Tim Curwick, Jason A Saslow, SR Foxley, Elliot Beter, Jacob Ash, Christian, Jan Schmid, Jirat, Christy Huddleston, Daniel Baulig, Chris Peters, Anna-Ester Volozh, Ian Dundore, Caleb Weeks, and Sheikh Kori Rahman.

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